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\title{Leptochloa Fusca Cultivation for Utilization of Salt-Affected Soil and Water Resources in the Cholistan Desert}
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\begin{document}

             \author[1]{Dr. Farooq  Ahmad}

             \affil[1]{  University of the Punjab}

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\date{\small \em Received: 16 December 2012 Accepted: 1 January 2013 Published: 15 January 2013}

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\begin{abstract}
        


In the Cholistan Desert, 0.44 million ha are salt-affected low lying and clayey in nature locally known as 'dhars', where rainwater as well as saline groundwater could be utilized for growing salt grasses like Leptochloa fusca as forage during summer. L. fusca is a promising candidate grass for economic utilization and better management of sodic, high pH, saline soil and water resources of the Cholistan Desert. L. fusca is known to be a versatile, halophytic, primary colonizer, easily propagatable, perennial, nutritive and palatable forage plant species. The grass has the good biomass producing potential and can grow equally well both under upland and submerged saline soil environment.

\end{abstract}


\keywords{Cholistan, Leptochloa fusca, saline irrigation, salt-affected, soil reclamation.}

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\let\tabcellsep& 	 	 		 
\section[{Introduction}]{Introduction}\par
Author : Department of Geography, University of the Punjab, New Campus, Lahore, Pakistan. E-mail : drylandpk@yahoo.com salt-affected soil is feasible and is the only viable method when the soil is sodic and sweet water is not available for irrigation \hyperref[b0]{(Abdullah, 1985;}\hyperref[b17]{Ahmad, 2010)}. 
\section[{II.}]{II.}\par
Research Design and Methods he Cholistan Desert (Figure \hyperref[fig_1]{1}) lies within the southeast quadrant of Punjab province between 27 o 42' and 29 o 45' North latitude and 69 o 52' and 73 o 05' East longitude (FAO/ADB, 1993; \hyperref[b32]{Arshad et al., 1995;}\hyperref[b46]{Jowkar et al., 1996;}\hyperref[b7]{Ahmad, 1998;}\hyperref[b8]{1999a;}\hyperref[b9]{1999b;}\hyperref[b10]{1999c;}\hyperref[b12]{2003;}\hyperref[b23]{Ahmad et al., 2004;}\hyperref[b13]{Ahmad, 2005a;}\hyperref[b14]{2005b;}\hyperref[b24]{Ahmad et al., 2005;}\hyperref[b15]{Ahmad, 2007a;}\hyperref[b16]{2007b;}\hyperref[b22]{Ahmad and Farooq, 2007;}\hyperref[b17]{Ahmad, 2010;}\hyperref[b18]{2011;}\hyperref[b19]{2012a;}\hyperref[b20]{2012b;} and covers an area of 2,580,000 ha \hyperref[b11]{(Ahmad, 2002;}\hyperref[b17]{2010)}, out of which 1.13 million ha comprising stable as well as non-stable sand dunes, 0.95 and 0.06 million ha consist of sandy and loamy soils respectively, while 0.44 million ha are clayey in nature, locally known as 'dhars'. About 17\% of the Cholistan Desert consist of such 'dhars' (Table \hyperref[tab_0]{1}) having flat and hard surface with salt incrustation and surrounded by sand dunes. Dhars are shallow to moderately deep, poorly drained with low vegetation, calcareous and having saline sodic fine to medium textured clayey soils. Except Haloxylon recurvum, other plant species can't survive due to salinity, compaction of soil and complete inundation during rainy season. The ponded rainwater in 'dhars' stagnates for a period until the water evaporates \hyperref[b47]{(Khan et al., 1990;}\hyperref[b17]{Ahmad, 2010)}. It is judicious to utilize the land using ground saline and surface rainwater resources for growing palatable grasses. Biological approach for economic utilization of T The purpose of this paper is to assess the available evidence and published arguments and to provide a constructive working synthesis of evidence about Leptochloa fusca in the literature. L. fusca is a promising grass for economic utilization and better management of sodic, high pH, saline soil and saline water resources of the Cholistan Desert. The plants respond to salinity stress in part by modulating gene expression, which ultimately leads to the restoration of cellular homeostasis, detoxification of toxins and recovery of growth \hyperref[b35]{(Ashraf and Harris, 2004)}. Salinity in soil or water is one of the major stresses and, especially in arid and semi-arid regions, can severely limit crop production (Shannon, 1997; Mansour, 2000; \hyperref[b35]{Ashraf and Harris, 2004;}\hyperref[b34]{Ashraf and Foolad, 2005;}\hyperref[b33]{Ashraf and Foolad, 2007)}. Several physiological responses to salinity that differ qualitatively or quantitatively between salt tolerant and sensitive species \hyperref[b35]{(Ashraf and Harris, 2004)}, and that are candidate indicators, it has not yet proved possible to find any sensitive criterion that could reliably be used by breeders to improve salt tolerance of plants \hyperref[b48]{(Kumar et al., 1994;}\hyperref[b35]{Ashraf and Harris, 2004;}\hyperref[b42]{Hamdia and Shaddad, 2010)}. Although the groundwater is saline but it can be used for saline agriculture to grow salt tolerant trees, vegetables, crops and fodder grasses in non-saline-non-sodic coarse textured soils with minimum adverse effects due to rapid leaching of salts Leptochloa fusca is high tolerant to saline and sodic conditions even irrigated by saline groundwater or ponded rainwater. After the successful cultivation of L. fusca in the Cholistan Desert, other palatable grasses like para grass (Brichiaria mutica), Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana), Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) and Sporobolus grass species can be tested (Abdullah   et al., 1990; Ahmad, 2010). The cultivation of salt tolerant grasses would not only provide much needed palatable forage for livestock but also improve the physical properties of the soil due to biological activity of grass roots.    
\section[{Growth Characteristics of Leptochloa Fusca}]{Growth Characteristics of Leptochloa Fusca}\par
Leptochloa fusca is also known as Diplachne fusca, widely spread in salt affected regions of Pakistan. This forage plant is locally known as "Kallar grass" (salt grass). Being a grass of sub-tropical climate, the plant follows the photosynthetic CO 2 fixation process of C 4 -NAD-malice enzyme metabolism \hyperref[b41]{(Gate, 1972;}\hyperref[b53]{Zafar and Malik, 1984;}\hyperref[b17]{Ahmad, 2010)}. It is native of saline soil which gives clear indication of its halophytic character; the plant is perennial or biennial in nature \hyperref[b57]{(Rao and Arshad, 1991;}\hyperref[b31]{Arshad and Rao, 1993)}. It has been regarded as good quality forage especially in saltaffected and waterlogged areas where other superior forage species may not grow successfully.\par
Leptochloa fusca can be easily propagated and established through seed, stem cutting, root stumps or rhizomes. The grass can grow to a height of 1 to 1.5 meter with a high leaf production rate and can be grazed directly or cut for stall-feeding. This fodder appears highly palatable to sheep, goats, buffaloes and cattle alike and no toxic effects of this grass during long-term consumption have been diagnosed. Moreover, it is similar to other conventional fodder regarding its nutritional status and 3-4 cutting within 3 months may be easily harvested, producing 20-40 tons of green fodder per ha per year or 5-10 tons per ha per cutting in saltaffected soils \hyperref[b59]{(Sandhu et al., 1981;}\hyperref[b56]{Qureshi et al., 1982;}\hyperref[b58]{Sandhu, 1993;}\hyperref[b17]{Ahmad, 2010)}. The grass grows well during the hot season from March to September with peak yields during rainy season i.e. July and August in Pakistan, indicating a strongly thermophilic character. The development of extensive and dense fibrous root system has been observed even in highly sodic soils \hyperref[b45]{(Joshi et al., 1981;}\hyperref[b17]{Ahmad, 2010)}. The penetration of roots in such soils can enhance hydraulic conductivity, microbial activity, organic matter and ultimately leaching of salts. \hyperref[b45]{Joshi (1981)} noted a decline of L. fusca growth due to decrease of soil sodicity, while \hyperref[b44]{Haq and Khan (1971)} observed that L. fusca has a general tendency to decrease EC e (electrolyte conductivity), SAR (sodium adsorption ratio), pH (soluble ions) and even ESP (exchangeable sodium percentage) of artificially salinized soils. \hyperref[b50]{Malik (1986)} confirmed the utility of L. fusca not only as a primary colonizer of salt-affected Leptochloa Fusca Cultivation for Utilization of Salt-Affected Soil and Water Resources in the Cholistan Desert lands but also as ameliorative plant for the soil \hyperref[b17]{(Ahmad, 2010)}.\par
IV. 
\section[{Nutritional Requirements}]{Nutritional Requirements}\par
V. 
\section[{Role in Soil Reclamation}]{Role in Soil Reclamation}\par
Leptochloa fusca behaved as a typical crypnoeu-halophyte having both accumulating and excreting properties \hyperref[b3]{(Abdullah, 1986}  
\section[{VI. Use of Ground Saline Water for Irrigation}]{VI. Use of Ground Saline Water for Irrigation}\par
Dense saline-sodic soils of the Cholistan Desert \hyperref[b37]{(Baig et al., 1975}) can be used for growing such palatable grasses, which is salt tolerant and capable of surviving in soils having poor properties \hyperref[b36]{(Baig et al., 1980)}. The sandy and loamy soil that is about 1 million ha can be brought under agriculture using underground saline water and harvested rainwater. Experiments showed that under certain conditions plant could not only survive but also even vast area of land could be irrigated with water of such high concentration. Moderately saline irrigation water stimulates vegetation, assists the benevolent bacteria of the soil and improves yield and quality \hyperref[b30]{(Akram et al., 1995)} It has been observed that 3-4 cuttings of this grass could be easily taken without the addition of nitrogen (N) fertilizer in salt-affected and less fertile soils. \hyperref[b51]{Malik (1980)} demonstrated a high activity of nitrogen, which indicates strong associative symbiotic relationship of N 2-fixing bacterium (Bacillus gram negative) in the rhizosphere of L. fusca. Moreover, the nitrogen fixation through the growth of blue green algae and Azolla under flooded conditions may partly contribute to the nitrogen supply and economy of the specie. It was also observed that L. fusca contribute more stable organic matter fraction due to its slow decomposition as compared to succulent plant species like Sesbania aculeata. Kumar  (1980) reported an abrupt increase in the yield of L. fusca from 24-26 tons per ha per year without N application to 41-46 tons per ha per year, when only 40 kg N per ha was applied in a sodic soil. \hyperref[b0]{Abdullah (1985)} showed a definite ameliorative effect of phosphorus (P) on the growth of L. fusca under saline environment \hyperref[b43]{(Hanson and Scott, 1980;}\hyperref[b5]{Agboma et al., 1997a;}\hyperref[b6]{Agboma et al., 1997b;}\hyperref[b39]{Díaz-Zorita et al., 2001)}. The application of P at the rate of 50 kg per ha gave significantly higher fresh and dry matter yield at EC e 10 dS m -1 than all other treatments, which was followed by 75 and 25 kg P per ha at EC e 20 dS m -1 . The synergistic P x salinity effect was obvious at the highest P level of 75 kg per ha. Thus, the specie is responded favourably to P application at all salinity levels studied i.e. EC e 3.5 to 30 dS m -1 , indicating higher P requirements. In general, the specie is capable to accumulate trace elements (Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn) in a sufficient amount to meet the dietary requirements of the livestock under saline soil conditions \hyperref[b1]{(Abdullah et al., 1990;}\hyperref[b17]{Ahmad, 2010)}.       The germination capacity of different varieties of tomato, ladyfinger (bhindi), spinach (palak), cowpea and zucchini (tori) at different levels EC e 3 to 18 mmho/cm was studied in sand culture \hyperref[b28]{(Akbar et al., 1996;}\hyperref[b27]{Akbar, 2002;} {\ref PADMU, 1986;}\hyperref[b17]{Ahmad, 2010)}. The germination was delayed and decreased with the increase in salinity. Significant vegetables were found to fall in the order of salt tolerance: Spinach > Zucchini > Cowpea > Tomato > Ladyfinger \hyperref[b4]{(Abdullah et al., 1988;}\hyperref[b1]{Abdullah et al., 1990;}\hyperref[b2]{Abdullah et al., 1991;}\hyperref[b17]{Ahmad, 2010)}. List of some salt tolerant grasses and forages cultivated in the Cholistan Desert using saline water is given in table 5. 
\section[{VII.}]{VII.} 
\section[{Conclusions}]{Conclusions}\par
The growth factors such as easy propagation, high spreading rate, colonizing ability, vigorous growth, yield, palatability, nutritional value, long term survival and high adaptability to environmental stress make L. fusca an excellent and versatile specie that can be cultivated using brackish water and salt-affected land of the Cholistan Desert for economic exploitation. L. fusca develop succulence, which dilute the level of salt in the plant and stores water for use during dry period. The specie has great promise for the economic utilization of sodic, high pH, waterlogged and saline soils. Similarly, high saline-sodic water can be used for successful cultivation of L. fusca.\par
VIII.\begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{}\includegraphics[]{image-2.png}
\caption{\label{fig_0}}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{1}\includegraphics[]{image-3.png}
\caption{\label{fig_1}Figure 1 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{}\includegraphics[]{image-4.png}
\caption{\label{fig_3}}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{}\includegraphics[]{image-5.png}
\caption{\label{fig_4}Forage}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{}\includegraphics[]{image-6.png}
\caption{\label{fig_5}}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{2435}\includegraphics[]{image-7.png}
\caption{\label{fig_6}Figure 2 :Figure 4 :Figure 3 :Figure 5 :}\end{figure}
  \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{1} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.42767295597484273\textwidth}P{0.2619496855345912\textwidth}P{0.16037735849056606\textwidth}}
Soil Types\tabcellsep Extent (Ha)\tabcellsep Percentage\\
Sand dunes\tabcellsep 1,133,900\tabcellsep 44.0\\
Sandy soils\tabcellsep 945,500\tabcellsep 37.0\\
Loamy soils\tabcellsep 58,700\tabcellsep 2.0\\
Saline sodic clayey soils (Dhars)\tabcellsep 441,900\tabcellsep 17.0\\
Total\tabcellsep 2,580,000\tabcellsep 100.0\end{longtable} \par
  {\small\itshape [Note: Source: PADMU -Pakistan Desertification Monitoring Unit (1986).III.]} 
\caption{\label{tab_0}Table 1 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{} \par 
\begin{longtable}{}
\end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_1}}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{2} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.30573122529644264\textwidth}P{0.14446640316205533\textwidth}P{0.13774703557312254\textwidth}P{0.03359683794466403\textwidth}P{0.15790513833992095\textwidth}P{0.03359683794466403\textwidth}P{0.03695652173913043\textwidth}}
Fodder grass\tabcellsep Biomass Fresh (kg)\tabcellsep Biomass Dry (kg)\tabcellsep Camel\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Carrying capacity per year Goat Sheep}\tabcellsep Cattle\\
Cenchrus ciliaris\tabcellsep 16811\tabcellsep 15012\tabcellsep 2\tabcellsep 14\tabcellsep 16\tabcellsep 3\\
Panicum antidotale\tabcellsep 22191\tabcellsep 12407\tabcellsep 1\tabcellsep 11\tabcellsep 14\tabcellsep 3\\
Lasirus sindicus\tabcellsep 25217\tabcellsep 18247\tabcellsep 2\tabcellsep 17\tabcellsep 20\tabcellsep 4\\
Napier Bajra\tabcellsep 43710\tabcellsep 38780\tabcellsep 4\tabcellsep 35\tabcellsep 42\tabcellsep 9\\
Leptochloa fusca\tabcellsep 13449\tabcellsep 11445\tabcellsep 1\tabcellsep 10\tabcellsep 13\tabcellsep 3\end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_3}Table 2 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{3} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.456875\textwidth}P{0.085\textwidth}P{0.08044642857142857\textwidth}P{0.08196428571428571\textwidth}P{0.08651785714285715\textwidth}P{0.05919642857142857\textwidth}}
\tabcellsep Green matter\tabcellsep Dry matter\tabcellsep Green matter\tabcellsep Dry matter yield\tabcellsep Plants/ha\\
Species\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep yield (tons/ha)\tabcellsep (tons/ha)\tabcellsep \\
\tabcellsep (kg/plant)\tabcellsep (kg/plant)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Atriplex amnicola 949\tabcellsep 4.31\tabcellsep 1.99\tabcellsep 2.7\tabcellsep 1.24\tabcellsep 625\\
Atriplex amnicola 971\tabcellsep 5.37\tabcellsep 2.39\tabcellsep 3.4\tabcellsep 1.49\tabcellsep 625\\
Atriplex amnicola 573\tabcellsep 6.73\tabcellsep 3.43\tabcellsep 4.2\tabcellsep 2.14\tabcellsep 625\\
Atriplex amnicola × Atriplex nummularia\tabcellsep 5.13\tabcellsep 2.15\tabcellsep 3.2\tabcellsep 1.34\tabcellsep 625\\
Atriplex buburyana 1205 (Carnarvan)\tabcellsep 3.11\tabcellsep 1.6\tabcellsep 7.8\tabcellsep 4.0\tabcellsep 2500\\
Atriplex buburyana 1200 (Leonora)\tabcellsep 2.0\tabcellsep 1.2\tabcellsep 5.0\tabcellsep 3.0\tabcellsep 2500\\
Atriplex cinerea 524\tabcellsep 5.0\tabcellsep 2.35\tabcellsep 3.1\tabcellsep 1.46\tabcellsep 625\\
Atriplex lentoformis\tabcellsep 5.45\tabcellsep 3.19\tabcellsep 3.4\tabcellsep 2.0\tabcellsep 625\\
Maireana aphylla 1062\tabcellsep 2.53\tabcellsep 1.2\tabcellsep 6.3\tabcellsep 3.0\tabcellsep 2500\\
\multicolumn{3}{l}{Source: PADMU -Pakistan Desertification Monitoring Unit (1986).}\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_4}Table 3 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{4} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.3901639344262295\textwidth}P{0.05573770491803279\textwidth}P{0.057728337236533964\textwidth}P{0.03981264637002342\textwidth}P{0.07166276346604215\textwidth}P{0.05573770491803279\textwidth}P{0.09555035128805621\textwidth}P{0.037822014051522246\textwidth}P{0.04578454332552693\textwidth}}
Name of Tree / Shrub / Bush\tabcellsep Age (months)\tabcellsep Survival (\%)\tabcellsep Min.\tabcellsep Height (cm) Mean\tabcellsep Max.\tabcellsep \multicolumn{3}{l}{Canopy Cover (cm) Min. Mean Max.}\\
Eucalyptus (Camddulensis)\tabcellsep 24\tabcellsep 76\tabcellsep 90\tabcellsep 156\tabcellsep 223\tabcellsep 66\tabcellsep 113\tabcellsep 161\\
Tamarix\tabcellsep 24\tabcellsep 48\tabcellsep 59\tabcellsep 106\tabcellsep 154\tabcellsep 52\tabcellsep 112\tabcellsep 173\\
Acacia\tabcellsep 24\tabcellsep 67\tabcellsep 66\tabcellsep 125\tabcellsep 193\tabcellsep 55\tabcellsep 126\tabcellsep 197\\
Beri (Zizyphus)\tabcellsep 24\tabcellsep 43\tabcellsep 55\tabcellsep 118\tabcellsep 181\tabcellsep 38\tabcellsep 82\tabcellsep 126\\
Jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis)\tabcellsep 18\tabcellsep 76\tabcellsep 20\tabcellsep 60\tabcellsep 110\tabcellsep 08\tabcellsep 48\tabcellsep 89\\
Atriplex halimus (Local)\tabcellsep 11\tabcellsep 65\tabcellsep --\tabcellsep 77\tabcellsep ---\tabcellsep --\tabcellsep 45\tabcellsep ---\\
Atriplex amnicola 573\tabcellsep 11\tabcellsep 40\tabcellsep --\tabcellsep 48\tabcellsep ---\tabcellsep --\tabcellsep 08\tabcellsep ---\\
Atriplex amnicola 197\tabcellsep 11\tabcellsep 80\tabcellsep --\tabcellsep 74\tabcellsep ---\tabcellsep --\tabcellsep 15\tabcellsep ---\\
Atriplex amnicola 223\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_5}Table 4 :}\end{figure}
 			\footnote{© 2013 Global Journals Inc. (US)} 			\footnote{© 2013 Global Journals Inc. (US) Year} 		 		\backmatter   			 
\subsection[{Acknowledgements}]{Acknowledgements}\par
The author wishes to thank Dr. Mohammad Arshad (Late), Cholistan Institute of Desert Studies, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan for providing technical assistance during the field study of the Cholistan Desert and valuable comments on a draftversion of this paper. 			  			  				\begin{bibitemlist}{1}
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\end{bibitemlist}
 			 		 	 
\end{document}
