# Introduction Author : Department of Geography, University of the Punjab, New Campus, Lahore, Pakistan. E-mail : drylandpk@yahoo.com salt-affected soil is feasible and is the only viable method when the soil is sodic and sweet water is not available for irrigation (Abdullah, 1985;Ahmad, 2010). # II. Research Design and Methods he Cholistan Desert (Figure 1) lies within the southeast quadrant of Punjab province between 27 o 42' and 29 o 45' North latitude and 69 o 52' and 73 o 05' East longitude (FAO/ADB, 1993; Arshad et al., 1995;Jowkar et al., 1996;Ahmad, 1998;1999a;1999b;1999c;2003;Ahmad et al., 2004;Ahmad, 2005a;2005b;Ahmad et al., 2005;Ahmad, 2007a;2007b;Ahmad and Farooq, 2007;Ahmad, 2010;2011;2012a;2012b; and covers an area of 2,580,000 ha (Ahmad, 2002;2010), out of which 1.13 million ha comprising stable as well as non-stable sand dunes, 0.95 and 0.06 million ha consist of sandy and loamy soils respectively, while 0.44 million ha are clayey in nature, locally known as 'dhars'. About 17% of the Cholistan Desert consist of such 'dhars' (Table 1) having flat and hard surface with salt incrustation and surrounded by sand dunes. Dhars are shallow to moderately deep, poorly drained with low vegetation, calcareous and having saline sodic fine to medium textured clayey soils. Except Haloxylon recurvum, other plant species can't survive due to salinity, compaction of soil and complete inundation during rainy season. The ponded rainwater in 'dhars' stagnates for a period until the water evaporates (Khan et al., 1990;Ahmad, 2010). It is judicious to utilize the land using ground saline and surface rainwater resources for growing palatable grasses. Biological approach for economic utilization of T The purpose of this paper is to assess the available evidence and published arguments and to provide a constructive working synthesis of evidence about Leptochloa fusca in the literature. L. fusca is a promising grass for economic utilization and better management of sodic, high pH, saline soil and saline water resources of the Cholistan Desert. The plants respond to salinity stress in part by modulating gene expression, which ultimately leads to the restoration of cellular homeostasis, detoxification of toxins and recovery of growth (Ashraf and Harris, 2004). Salinity in soil or water is one of the major stresses and, especially in arid and semi-arid regions, can severely limit crop production (Shannon, 1997; Mansour, 2000; Ashraf and Harris, 2004;Ashraf and Foolad, 2005;Ashraf and Foolad, 2007). Several physiological responses to salinity that differ qualitatively or quantitatively between salt tolerant and sensitive species (Ashraf and Harris, 2004), and that are candidate indicators, it has not yet proved possible to find any sensitive criterion that could reliably be used by breeders to improve salt tolerance of plants (Kumar et al., 1994;Ashraf and Harris, 2004;Hamdia and Shaddad, 2010). Although the groundwater is saline but it can be used for saline agriculture to grow salt tolerant trees, vegetables, crops and fodder grasses in non-saline-non-sodic coarse textured soils with minimum adverse effects due to rapid leaching of salts Leptochloa fusca is high tolerant to saline and sodic conditions even irrigated by saline groundwater or ponded rainwater. After the successful cultivation of L. fusca in the Cholistan Desert, other palatable grasses like para grass (Brichiaria mutica), Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana), Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) and Sporobolus grass species can be tested (Abdullah et al., 1990; Ahmad, 2010). The cultivation of salt tolerant grasses would not only provide much needed palatable forage for livestock but also improve the physical properties of the soil due to biological activity of grass roots. # Growth Characteristics of Leptochloa Fusca Leptochloa fusca is also known as Diplachne fusca, widely spread in salt affected regions of Pakistan. This forage plant is locally known as "Kallar grass" (salt grass). Being a grass of sub-tropical climate, the plant follows the photosynthetic CO 2 fixation process of C 4 -NAD-malice enzyme metabolism (Gate, 1972;Zafar and Malik, 1984;Ahmad, 2010). It is native of saline soil which gives clear indication of its halophytic character; the plant is perennial or biennial in nature (Rao and Arshad, 1991;Arshad and Rao, 1993). It has been regarded as good quality forage especially in saltaffected and waterlogged areas where other superior forage species may not grow successfully. Leptochloa fusca can be easily propagated and established through seed, stem cutting, root stumps or rhizomes. The grass can grow to a height of 1 to 1.5 meter with a high leaf production rate and can be grazed directly or cut for stall-feeding. This fodder appears highly palatable to sheep, goats, buffaloes and cattle alike and no toxic effects of this grass during long-term consumption have been diagnosed. Moreover, it is similar to other conventional fodder regarding its nutritional status and 3-4 cutting within 3 months may be easily harvested, producing 20-40 tons of green fodder per ha per year or 5-10 tons per ha per cutting in saltaffected soils (Sandhu et al., 1981;Qureshi et al., 1982;Sandhu, 1993;Ahmad, 2010). The grass grows well during the hot season from March to September with peak yields during rainy season i.e. July and August in Pakistan, indicating a strongly thermophilic character. The development of extensive and dense fibrous root system has been observed even in highly sodic soils (Joshi et al., 1981;Ahmad, 2010). The penetration of roots in such soils can enhance hydraulic conductivity, microbial activity, organic matter and ultimately leaching of salts. Joshi (1981) noted a decline of L. fusca growth due to decrease of soil sodicity, while Haq and Khan (1971) observed that L. fusca has a general tendency to decrease EC e (electrolyte conductivity), SAR (sodium adsorption ratio), pH (soluble ions) and even ESP (exchangeable sodium percentage) of artificially salinized soils. Malik (1986) confirmed the utility of L. fusca not only as a primary colonizer of salt-affected Leptochloa Fusca Cultivation for Utilization of Salt-Affected Soil and Water Resources in the Cholistan Desert lands but also as ameliorative plant for the soil (Ahmad, 2010). IV. # Nutritional Requirements V. # Role in Soil Reclamation Leptochloa fusca behaved as a typical crypnoeu-halophyte having both accumulating and excreting properties (Abdullah, 1986 # VI. Use of Ground Saline Water for Irrigation Dense saline-sodic soils of the Cholistan Desert (Baig et al., 1975) can be used for growing such palatable grasses, which is salt tolerant and capable of surviving in soils having poor properties (Baig et al., 1980). The sandy and loamy soil that is about 1 million ha can be brought under agriculture using underground saline water and harvested rainwater. Experiments showed that under certain conditions plant could not only survive but also even vast area of land could be irrigated with water of such high concentration. Moderately saline irrigation water stimulates vegetation, assists the benevolent bacteria of the soil and improves yield and quality (Akram et al., 1995) It has been observed that 3-4 cuttings of this grass could be easily taken without the addition of nitrogen (N) fertilizer in salt-affected and less fertile soils. Malik (1980) demonstrated a high activity of nitrogen, which indicates strong associative symbiotic relationship of N 2-fixing bacterium (Bacillus gram negative) in the rhizosphere of L. fusca. Moreover, the nitrogen fixation through the growth of blue green algae and Azolla under flooded conditions may partly contribute to the nitrogen supply and economy of the specie. It was also observed that L. fusca contribute more stable organic matter fraction due to its slow decomposition as compared to succulent plant species like Sesbania aculeata. Kumar (1980) reported an abrupt increase in the yield of L. fusca from 24-26 tons per ha per year without N application to 41-46 tons per ha per year, when only 40 kg N per ha was applied in a sodic soil. Abdullah (1985) showed a definite ameliorative effect of phosphorus (P) on the growth of L. fusca under saline environment (Hanson and Scott, 1980;Agboma et al., 1997a;Agboma et al., 1997b;Díaz-Zorita et al., 2001). The application of P at the rate of 50 kg per ha gave significantly higher fresh and dry matter yield at EC e 10 dS m -1 than all other treatments, which was followed by 75 and 25 kg P per ha at EC e 20 dS m -1 . The synergistic P x salinity effect was obvious at the highest P level of 75 kg per ha. Thus, the specie is responded favourably to P application at all salinity levels studied i.e. EC e 3.5 to 30 dS m -1 , indicating higher P requirements. In general, the specie is capable to accumulate trace elements (Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn) in a sufficient amount to meet the dietary requirements of the livestock under saline soil conditions (Abdullah et al., 1990;Ahmad, 2010). The germination capacity of different varieties of tomato, ladyfinger (bhindi), spinach (palak), cowpea and zucchini (tori) at different levels EC e 3 to 18 mmho/cm was studied in sand culture (Akbar et al., 1996;Akbar, 2002;PADMU, 1986;Ahmad, 2010). The germination was delayed and decreased with the increase in salinity. Significant vegetables were found to fall in the order of salt tolerance: Spinach > Zucchini > Cowpea > Tomato > Ladyfinger (Abdullah et al., 1988;Abdullah et al., 1990;Abdullah et al., 1991;Ahmad, 2010). List of some salt tolerant grasses and forages cultivated in the Cholistan Desert using saline water is given in table 5. # VII. # Conclusions The growth factors such as easy propagation, high spreading rate, colonizing ability, vigorous growth, yield, palatability, nutritional value, long term survival and high adaptability to environmental stress make L. fusca an excellent and versatile specie that can be cultivated using brackish water and salt-affected land of the Cholistan Desert for economic exploitation. L. fusca develop succulence, which dilute the level of salt in the plant and stores water for use during dry period. The specie has great promise for the economic utilization of sodic, high pH, waterlogged and saline soils. Similarly, high saline-sodic water can be used for successful cultivation of L. fusca. VIII. ![zone and flushing of salts from root zone by rains(Abdullah et al., 1990;Ahmad, 2010).](image-2.png "") 1![Figure 1 : Location map of the Cholistan Desert](image-3.png "Figure 1 :") ![Journals Inc. (US)](image-4.png "") ![-Pakistan Desertification Monitoring Unit (1986).](image-5.png "Forage") ![-Pakistan Desertification Monitoring Unit (1986).](image-6.png "") 2435![Figure 2 : Wild oats grown by highly saline irrigation at PCRWR research station at the Cholistan Desert (Pakistan). Ahmad, Farooq 2008](image-7.png "Figure 2 :Figure 4 :Figure 3 :Figure 5 :") 1Soil TypesExtent (Ha)PercentageSand dunes1,133,90044.0Sandy soils945,50037.0Loamy soils58,7002.0Saline sodic clayey soils (Dhars)441,90017.0Total2,580,000100.0Source: PADMU -Pakistan Desertification Monitoring Unit (1986).III. 2Fodder grassBiomass Fresh (kg)Biomass Dry (kg)CamelCarrying capacity per year Goat SheepCattleCenchrus ciliaris1681115012214163Panicum antidotale2219112407111143Lasirus sindicus2521718247217204Napier Bajra4371038780435429Leptochloa fusca1344911445110133 3Green matterDry matterGreen matterDry matter yieldPlants/haSpeciesyield (tons/ha)(tons/ha)(kg/plant)(kg/plant)Atriplex amnicola 9494.311.992.71.24625Atriplex amnicola 9715.372.393.41.49625Atriplex amnicola 5736.733.434.22.14625Atriplex amnicola × Atriplex nummularia5.132.153.21.34625Atriplex buburyana 1205 (Carnarvan)3.111.67.84.02500Atriplex buburyana 1200 (Leonora)2.01.25.03.02500Atriplex cinerea 5245.02.353.11.46625Atriplex lentoformis5.453.193.42.0625Maireana aphylla 10622.531.26.33.02500Source: PADMU -Pakistan Desertification Monitoring Unit (1986). 4Name of Tree / Shrub / BushAge (months)Survival (%)Min.Height (cm) MeanMax.Canopy Cover (cm) Min. Mean Max.Eucalyptus (Camddulensis)24769015622366113161Tamarix24485910615452112173Acacia24676612519355126197Beri (Zizyphus)2443551181813882126Jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis)18762060110084889Atriplex halimus (Local)1165--77-----45---Atriplex amnicola 5731140--48-----08---Atriplex amnicola 1971180--74-----15---Atriplex amnicola 223 © 2013 Global Journals Inc. (US) © 2013 Global Journals Inc. (US) Year ## Acknowledgements The author wishes to thank Dr. Mohammad Arshad (Late), Cholistan Institute of Desert Studies, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan for providing technical assistance during the field study of the Cholistan Desert and valuable comments on a draftversion of this paper. * Salt tolerance studies on Leptochloa Fusca MAbdullah 1985 286 Faisalabad, Pakistan University of Agriculture Ph.D. dissertation * Internal water resources management by plants under various root environment stresses with special reference to kallar grass Leptochloa Fusca MAbdullah MAkram ADKhan RHQureshi Proceedings of the National Seminar on Water Resources Development and its Management in Arid Areas the National Seminar on Water Resources Development and its Management in Arid AreasQuetta, Pakistan 1990. 6-8 October 1990 * Leptochloa Fusca: A high yielding candidate grass for utilization of salt-affected soil and water resources in Cholistan desert MAbdullah MAkram AMajeed MAButt RHQureshi MArshad 1991 Pakistan Cholistan Institute of Desert Studies, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur Proceedings of seminar: People's participation in the management of resources in arid lands * Responses of Leptochloa Fusca to various types of substrate salinities MAbdullah RHQureshi NAhmad Proceedings of Pak.-US. Biosaline research Workshop Pak.-US. Biosaline research WorkshopKarachi, Pakistan 1986. September 1985 * Salt tolerance mechanisms in desert plants MAbdullah RHQureshi MAkram Pakistan Journal of Water Resources 41 1 1988 * Effect of foliar application of glycine betaine on yield components of droughtstressed tobacco plants PCAgboma PPeltonen-Sainio RHinkkanen EPehu Experimental Agriculture 33 3 1997a * An evaluation of the effect of exogenous glycine betaine on the growth and yield of soybean: timing of application, watering regimes and cultivars PCAgboma TRSinclair KJokinen PPeltonen-Sainio EPehu Field Crops Research 54 1 1997b * Combating desertification: Role of rainwater harvesting in Cholistan F; P RAhmad China Proceedings of an International Symposium & 2nd Chinese National Conference on Rainwater Utilization an International Symposium & 2nd Chinese National Conference on Rainwater UtilizationXuzhou 1998. 8-14 September 1998 * Ecological restoration in Cholistan FAhmad Journal Geographic 2 1 1999a * Eco-regeneration and runoff collection in Cholistan FAhmad UNEP: Desertification Control Bulletin 35 1999b * Rainwater utilization and ecological restoration in Cholistan FAhmad Proceedings of VI International Rangeland Congress VI International Rangeland CongressTownsville, Australia 1999c. 19-23 July 1999 * Socio-economic dimensions and ecological destruction in Cholistan FAhmad 2002. May 08. 2013 Pakistan Department of Geography, University of Karachi Ph.D. dissertation * GIS application for range development in Cholistan FAhmad Proceedings of VII International Rangelands Congress VII International Rangelands CongressDurban, South Africa 2003. 26 July to 1 August 2003 * Agro-pastoral systems in Cholistan FAhmad Pakistan Geographical Review 60 2 2005a * Historical and archaeological perspectives of soil degradation in Cholistan FAhmad Journal Geographic 10 2005b * Geoinformatics application to investigate agricultural potential in Cholistan desert FAhmad Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment 5 2 2007a * Archaeo-historical environ of Cholistan and significance of ancient agriculture in Pakistan FAhmad Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment 5 2007b * Leptochloa Fusca cultivation for utilization of salt-affected soil and water resources in Cholistan desert FAhmad Revista Sociedade & Natureza 22 1 2010 * Soil classification and micromorphology: A case study of Cholistan desert FAhmad Journal of Soil Science and Environmental Management 2 11 2011 * Spectral vegetation indices performance evaluated for Cholistan Desert FAhmad Journal of Geography and Regional Planning 5 6 2012a * Landsat ETM+ and MODIS EVI/NDVI data products for climatic variation and agricultural measurements in Cholistan Desert FAhmad Global Journal of Human Social Science: Geography & Environmental Geo-Sciences 12 13 2012b * Run-off farming in reducing rural poverty in the Cholistan Desert FAhmad Global Journal of Human Social Science: Geography, Geo-Sciences, Environmental Disaster Management 13 5 2013 * Role of rainwater harvesting in reducing rural poverty in Cholistan Desert FAhmad SFarooq Abstract in 12th All Pakistan Geographical Conference Lahore, Pakistan 2007. 19-21 March 2007 24 * Leptochloa Fusca: A high yielding grass for utilization of salt-affected soil and water resources in Cholistan FAhmad FGulzar SAShirazi SFarooq ZAli Fourth International Conference on Land Degradation Murcia, Spain 2004. September 2004 434 * Agropastoral systems in Cholistan FAhmad FGulzar SAShirazi SFarooq ZAli Proceedings of Silvopastoralism and Sustainable Land Management International Congress Silvopastoralism and Sustainable Land Management International Congress 2005 * Lugo Spain April 2004 United Kingdom * Developing Cholistan desert -a perspective TFAhmad GAkbar MBTahir IAhmad Progressive Farming 12 6 1992 * Feasibility of silvo-pastoral model for saline -sodic soils in arid climate GAkbar Science Vision 8 1 2002 * Cholistan desert GAkbar TNKhan MArshad Pakistan. Rangelands 18 4 1996 * Effect of kallar grass growth on water transmission characteristics of salt-affected lands JAkhtar RAWaheed KAMalik MIHaq Proceedings of First National Congress on Soil Sciences First National Congress on Soil SciencesLahore, Pakistan 1988. 6-8 October 1985 * Rehabilitation of Cholistan desertified lands for sustained production MAkram WAKhan BASheikh MAbdullah ADKhan Proceedings of the 6th All Pakistan Geographical Conference the 6th All Pakistan Geographical ConferencePakistan 1995. 26-29 December 1993 The Islamia University of Bahawalpur * Plant genetic resources of Cholistan desert and their utilization MArshad Rao Altaf-Ur-Rehman 1993 Pakistan Cholistan Institute of Desert Studies, the Islamia University of Bahawalpur * Cholistan desert in a state of flux MArshad Rao Altaf-Ur-Rehman GAkbar UNEP: Desertification Control Bulletin 26 1995 * Roles of glycine betaine and proline in improving plant abiotic stress resistance MAshraf MRFoolad Environmental and Experimental Botany 59 2 2007 * Pre-sowing seed treatment-A shotgum approach to improve germination, plant growth, and crop yield under saline and non saline conditions MAshraf MRFoolad Advances in Agronomy 88 2005 * Potential biochemical indicators of salinity tolerance in plants MAshraf PJ CHarris Plant Science 166 1 2004. July 20. 2013 * Possibilities for range development in Cholistan desert as reflected by its physiography and soils MSBaig MAkram MAHassan The Pakistan Journal of Forestry 1980 * Reconnaissance soil survey of Cholistan MSBaig EHKhan MRZaheer MAhmad Soil Survey of Pakistan 1975 * Effect of root temperature on plant response functions for tomato: comparison of static and dynamic salinity stress indices FNDalton AMaggio GPiccinni Plant and Soil 192 2 1997 * Applications of foliar fertilizers containing glycine betaine improve wheat yields MDíaz-Zorita MVFernández-Canigia GAGrosso Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science 186 2001 * Cholistan area development project Fao/Adb No. 59/53 ADB-PAK 58 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Rome, Italy 1993 Report Final version * Ecological response of Australian native species Acacia harpophylla and Atriplex mummularia to soil salinity, effect on water content, lead area and transpiration rate CTGate Australian Journal of Botany 20 1972 * Salt tolerance of crop plants MHamdia MA KShaddad Journal of Stress Physiology & Biochemistry 6 3 2010 * Betaine synthesis from radioactive precursors in attached, water-stressed barley leaves ADHanson NAScott Plant Physiology 66 2 1980 * Reclamation of saline and alkaline soil by growing kallar grass MHaq MF AKhan The Nucleus 8 4 1971 * Cholistan Institute of Desert Studies, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan. and glycophytes. Annual report for YCJoshi AQadir SKSharma Arshad, M. 1981. 1980 Karnal, India Central Soil Salinity Research Institute People's participation in the management of resources in arid lands * Socioeconomic dimensions of resource management in Cholistan FJowkar MAKhan MKhan Institute for Development Anthropology (IDA) Binghamton, New York 1996 * Rainwater harvesting in Cholistan desert ADKhan MAkram MAbdullah Proceedings of the National Seminar on Water Resources Development and its Management in the Arid Areas the National Seminar on Water Resources Development and its Management in the Arid AreasQuetta, Pakistan 1990. 6-8 October 1990 * Forage yield of sorghum and winter clovers as affected by biological and chemical reclamation of a highly alkaline soil AKumar LBatra RChhabra Experimental Agriculture 30 3 1994 * Karnal grass grows well in sodic soils AKumar IPAbrol KSDargan Indian Farming 30 3 1980 * Kallar Grass -A plant for saline land KAMalik ZAslam MNaqvi Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology 93 1986 NIAB * Nitrogenase activity in the rhizosphere of kallar grass Diplachne Fusca KAMalik YZafar AHussain Biologia 26 1-2 1980 * Nitrogen containing compounds and adaptation of plants to salinity stress MM FMansour Advances in Agronomy 43 4 2000. 1997 Biologia Plantarum * YZafar KAMalik Photosynthetic system of Leptochloa Fusca 1984 16 * Brazil for publication. The Revista Sociedade & Natureza is not on the list of approved journals of Higher Education Commission, Pakistan. The author obtained N.O.C. from the editor Revista Sociedade & Natureza, Prof. Dr. Sílvio Carlos Rodrigues and re-submitted the revised and modified text alongwith the N.O.C. to the Editor-in-Chief Dr The author submitted the text of the paper to Revista Sociedade & Natureza Instituto de Geografia, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia Vivek Dubey, Global Journals Inc., USA for republication * Desertification process in Cholistan desert PADMU 7/86 1986 PCRWR Publication PADMU * Diplachne Fusca: An Australian salt tolerant grass used in Pakistan RHQureshi MAslam MAbdullah MGPitman Journal of Australian Institute for Agricultural Science 48 4 1982 * Proceedings of seminar: People's participation in the management of resources in arid lands Altaf-Ur-RehmanRao Arshad M 1991 Pakistan Cholistan Institute of Desert Studies, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur Perennial grasses of Cholistan desert and their distribution * Sustainable agriculture: A Pakistan National Conservation Strategy Sector Paper No. 2. Environment and Urban Affairs Division, Government of Pakistan and IUCN -The World Conservation Union GRSandhu 1993 Pakistan * The effect of salinity on the yield and composition of Diplachne Fusca GRSandhu ZAslam MSalim ASattar RHQureshi NAhmad WynJones RG 1981 Kallar grass * Plant, Cell & Environment 4 2