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\def\makelabel##1{\upshape ##1}}% } {\end{list}\end{raggedright}} \newenvironment{specHead}[2]% {\vspace{20pt}\hrule\vspace{10pt}% \phantomsection\label{#1}\markright{#2}% \pdfbookmark[2]{#2}{#1}% \hspace{-0.75in}{\bfseries\fontsize{16pt}{18pt}\selectfont#2}% }{} \def\TheFullDate{2012-01-15 (revised: 15 January 2012)} \def\TheID{\makeatother } \def\TheDate{2012-01-15} \title{Determinants of Child Poverty in Rural Nigeria: A Multidimensional Approach} \author{}\makeatletter \makeatletter \newcommand*{\cleartoleftpage}{% \clearpage \if@twoside \ifodd\c@page \hbox{}\newpage \if@twocolumn \hbox{}\newpage \fi \fi \fi } \makeatother \makeatletter \thispagestyle{empty} \markright{\@title}\markboth{\@title}{\@author} \renewcommand\small{\@setfontsize\small{9pt}{11pt}\abovedisplayskip 8.5\p@ plus3\p@ minus4\p@ \belowdisplayskip \abovedisplayskip \abovedisplayshortskip \z@ plus2\p@ \belowdisplayshortskip 4\p@ plus2\p@ minus2\p@ \def\@listi{\leftmargin\leftmargini \topsep 2\p@ plus1\p@ minus1\p@ \parsep 2\p@ plus\p@ minus\p@ \itemsep 1pt} } \makeatother \fvset{frame=single,numberblanklines=false,xleftmargin=5mm,xrightmargin=5mm} \fancyhf{} \setlength{\headheight}{14pt} \fancyhead[LE]{\bfseries\leftmark} \fancyhead[RO]{\bfseries\rightmark} \fancyfoot[RO]{} \fancyfoot[CO]{\thepage} \fancyfoot[LO]{\TheID} \fancyfoot[LE]{} \fancyfoot[CE]{\thepage} \fancyfoot[RE]{\TheID} \hypersetup{citebordercolor=0.75 0.75 0.75,linkbordercolor=0.75 0.75 0.75,urlbordercolor=0.75 0.75 0.75,bookmarksnumbered=true} \fancypagestyle{plain}{\fancyhead{}\renewcommand{\headrulewidth}{0pt}} \date{} \usepackage{authblk} \providecommand{\keywords}[1] { \footnotesize \textbf{\textit{Index terms---}} #1 } \usepackage{graphicx,xcolor} \definecolor{GJBlue}{HTML}{273B81} \definecolor{GJLightBlue}{HTML}{0A9DD9} \definecolor{GJMediumGrey}{HTML}{6D6E70} \definecolor{GJLightGrey}{HTML}{929497} \renewenvironment{abstract}{% \setlength{\parindent}{0pt}\raggedright \textcolor{GJMediumGrey}{\rule{\textwidth}{2pt}} \vskip16pt \textcolor{GJBlue}{\large\bfseries\abstractname\space} }{% \vskip8pt \textcolor{GJMediumGrey}{\rule{\textwidth}{2pt}} \vskip16pt } \usepackage[absolute,overlay]{textpos} \makeatother \usepackage{lineno} \linenumbers \begin{document} \author[1]{Dr. Adeoti Adetola} \affil[1]{ University of Ibadan, Ibadan. Nigeria.} \renewcommand\Authands{ and } \date{\small \em Received: 7 December 2011 Accepted: 5 January 2012 Published: 15 January 2012} \maketitle \begin{abstract} The profiles and determinants of child poverty in rural Nigeria were identified using the Demographic and Health Survey, 2008 data. The multidimensional child poverty concept was applied to children under-5 years of age. In all, a total of 4,543 children were analyzed. About half of the children were male and the mean age for all the children is 29 months old.A single step Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA) was carried out to generate weights for five dimensions used in the multidimensional poverty estimations. These dimensions are safe drinking water, sanitation, housing, health and nutrition. The Alkire and Foster (2007) counting approach was applied to generate multidimensional poverty profiles for the children. When the poverty cut off K=1, 52% of the children were multidimensional poor as against 27.9% poor when k=3.This implies that when children are deprived in at least one dimension, 52% are multidimensional poor. The health and sanitation dimensions had the highest relative contribution of 38.54% and 22.58% respectively to the overall multidimensional poverty index . \end{abstract} \keywords{Poverty, Under-5 children, Alkire and Foaster approach, Multiple Correspondence Analysis, logistic regression, Rural Nigeria.} \begin{textblock*}{18cm}(1cm,1cm) % {block width} (coords) \textcolor{GJBlue}{\LARGE Global Journals \LaTeX\ JournalKaleidoscope\texttrademark} \end{textblock*} \begin{textblock*}{18cm}(1.4cm,1.5cm) % {block width} (coords) \textcolor{GJBlue}{\footnotesize \\ Artificial Intelligence formulated this projection for compatibility purposes from the original article published at Global Journals. However, this technology is currently in beta. \emph{Therefore, kindly ignore odd layouts, missed formulae, text, tables, or figures.}} \end{textblock*} \let\tabcellsep& \section[{I. Introduction}]{I. Introduction}\par hildren are the most vulnerable in the society and poverty, especially t are such mostly affected by the incidence of hose whose ages range from 0 to 15 years. According to UNICEF, child poverty means children, who experience deprivation of the material resources needed to survive, develop and thrive, leaving them unable to enjoy their rights, achieve their full potential, or participate as full and equal member of the society. One of every three children in the developing world lacks access to basic sanitation, and one of every five has no access to safe drinking water {\ref (UNICEF, 2009)}. About 600 million children worldwide are growing up in absolute poverty and over ten million children under-five years of age die every year {\ref (Insights Development Research, 2005)}. Every year, nearly 10 million children die from largely preventable causes (UNICEF, 2011). These include illnesses such as pneumonia, diarrhea and malaria, as well as conflict and HIV/AIDS. Malnutrition, poor hygiene, lack of access to safe water and adequate sanitation contribute to more than half of these deaths \hyperref[b45]{(UNICEF, 2005)}. More than 90\% of child death under the age of 18 occur before the age of five \hyperref[b56]{(UNDG, 2003)}. Ninety-three percent of all under-five deaths currently occur in Africa and Asia combined and 40\% occur in just three countries: India, Nigeria and the Democratic Republic of Congo. \hyperref[b45]{(UNICEF, 2008)}.\par Children in Nigeria often face many problems such as poor health, lack of access to quality education, food and social insecurity and lack of care. In Nigeria, child poverty is typical both in urban and rural areas. Children living in rural areas are deprived of useful and beneficial resources. Mostly they have access to rivers and other surface water only, no access to modern toilets, limited access to immunizations and medical advice, living in dwelling with more than five people per room, no school attendance, no access to newspaper and other media. Nigeria among other developing countries of the world needs to tackle child poverty \hyperref[b11]{(Gordon D. et al 2003)}.\par Majority of Nigerians are barely surviving financially with 70.2 per cent living below US\$ 1 a day {\ref (UNDP, 2005)}. Poverty rate has increased from an average of 27 per cent in the 1980s to over 70 per cent in 2003 {\ref (African Economic Outlook, 2005)}. A national poverty survey carried out indicates that the high tropic areas have moderate poverty while the northern regions have poverty levels that are as high as 60\% \hyperref[b32]{(Odusola, 1997;}\hyperref[b34]{Okunmadewa et al., 2005}; NBS, 2009) with higher incidence in the rural areas Several authors have considered poverty using the uni-dimensional approach, only few have adopted the multidimensional approach, Estimating child poverty from a multidimensional perspective is recent and few. The different dimensions of poverty remain a challenge to choosing the appropriate poverty measure and indicators Whereas the choice of a specific poverty measure may have major consequences for poverty reduction, some measures may better identify specific poverty situations than others (Hagenaars\&Vos 1988; \hyperref[b41]{Laderchi et al., 2003)}.\par This paper examines the incidence and determinants of child poverty in rural Nigeria.\par It estimates poverty among children of less than five years old. Literature on child poverty considered from the multidimensional perspective in Nigeria is rare. However, various studies conducted on poverty in Nigeria in the past include World {\ref Bank (2008)}, \hyperref[b59]{Onah (1996)}, \hyperref[b19]{Echeberi (1997)} \hyperref[b33]{Ogwumike and Ekpeyong (1996)}, {\ref Anyanwu (l997)}, \hyperref[b32]{Odusola (1997)}, \hyperref[b20]{Englama and Bamidele (1997)}. None of them quantified the specifics of child poverty and the factors that influence it. An exception is the Global Study on Child Poverty and Disparity by UNICEF which employed the use of the MICS 2007 to examine well being in children. The Alkire and Foster methodology has an added advantage to previous multidimensional measures as it introduces a dual-cutoff identification method, while its aggregation methodology builds on the traditional FGT approach. Also, the depth and severity of poverty can be estimated using a multidimensional approach.\par The broad objective of this paper is to examine the incidence and determinants of child poverty in rural Nigeria. The specific objectives are to:\par ? Describe the socio-economic characteristics of under-five children. ? Identify the dimensions of child poverty.\par ? Profile the poverty status of the children ? Identify the determinants of child poverty \section[{III. Literature Review on Child Poverty}]{III. Literature Review on Child Poverty}\par Bristol approach adopted by the Global study (UNICEF, 2007)-aligned child poverty measurement with the child rights approach and implement indicators and cutoffs for child poverty that reflected the definition agreed in the World summit. This was used to produce a large number of child poverty estimates across a large number of developing countries \hyperref[b11]{(Gordon et al, 2003;}\hyperref[b12]{Gordon et al., 2001;} {\ref UNICEF, 2004)}. The studies used the DHS data which can be replicated with MICS data. It belongs to the counting tradition of poverty measures which reports the headcount or percentage of children who are multidimensionally poor. It has the advantage of being easy to estimate and interpret; but does not provide information on the depth and severity of poverty \hyperref[b31]{Delamonica and Minujin (2007)} and {\ref Foster (2007, 2011)}.\par The Alkire-Foster (AF) method (2007,2011) combines the counting approach \hyperref[b11]{(Gordon et al., 2003} with the literature on axiomatic approaches to multidimensional poverty in welfare economics \hyperref[b28]{(Bourguignon and Chakravarty, 2003;} {\ref Alkire, 2008)}. It provides multidimensional measure that reflects the intensity of poverty.It also reveals the depth and severity of multidimensional poverty.\par Alkire S and Manuel Roche. J (2011) measured child poverty in Bangladesh using four rounds of the DHS data for the period 1997-2007 and estimated the headcount, breadth, and severity of the various dimensions of child poverty. The selected indicators for children under -five are nutrition, water, sanitation, health, shelter and information. The results show that the Alkire-Foster adjusted headcount ratio produces different ranking than the simple headcount, because it reflects the simultaneous deprivations children experience.\par Santos Emma and Karma Ura (2008) estimated multidimensional poverty in Bhutan using the \hyperref[b1]{Alkire and Foster (2007)} methodology. With data from the Living Standard Survey, five dimensions were considered for estimation in rural and urban areas with additional two for rural areas. The study employed two alternative weighting systems: equal weights and weights derived from Gross National Happiness Survey. The dimensions considered are income, education, room availability, access to electricity and access to drinking water. For rural areas, access to roads and land ownership was \section[{Global Journal of Human Social Science}]{Global Journal of Human Social Science}\par Volume XII Issue W XII Version I( D D D D ) A 2 40 \section[{Year}]{Year}\par In Nigeria, the UNICEF study using the MICS 2007 data used both the income/consumption and the deprivation approach to estimate child poverty and deprivations. The use of the income/consumption approach is based on the premise that the household poverty affect children in those households; being the most vulnerable. However, since all indicators of poverty cannot be captured based on money-metric measures, they also adopted the deprivation approach. In the deprivation approach, the seven areas considered as very basic for child survival, growth and development are shelter, sanitation, water, information, food and nutrition, education and health. The study used a set of threshold to categorize Nigerian children into levels of deprivation. Deprivation in each of these areas exists at two levels namely severe and less severe. The term 'absolute poverty' has also been used to describe a situation where children suffer at least two deprivations. \section[{II. Objectives}]{II. Objectives}\par added. The estimates are decomposed into rural and urban areas, by dimension and between districts. The results show that the contribution of each dimension is dependent on the weighting system. Also, the ranking of districts was found to be robust for a wide range of poverty cut-offs. The methodology is suggested as a potential formula for national poverty measurement as well as a tool for budget allocation among districts and dimensions.\par Batana (2008) used the Alkire and Foster (2007) method to estimate multidimensional poverty in fourteen sub-saharan African countries. Identification of who is poor and who is not poor is based on four dimensionsassets, health, schooling and empowerment. Four main results include: Firstly, there are important cross-country differences in multidimensional poverty, Secondly, the ranking of countries based on the Alkire and Foster (2007) multidimensional poverty measure differs from the rankings based on standard welfare measures (HDI and Income poverty). Thirdly, decomposition of multidimensional poverty is more prevalent in rural than urban areas. Finally, decomposition of poverty by dimensions indicates that lack of schooling is the key contributor to multidimensional poverty.\par Alkire and Suman (2009) applied the dual cutoff approach to study multidimensional poverty in India. They found that identified under the AF multidimensional poverty measurements were not included in india's social assistance program that targets the poor households as identified by comparing their income with official income poverty line. Alkire and Suman also illustrated the policy value of decomposable Alkire and Foster multidimensional poverty measures: to inform multisectoral planning by identifying local priorities for public investment. Based on the results, they concluded that the Alkire and foster (2007) approach can be used to access dimensions that drive multidimensional poverty in different contexts.\par Kabubo M. et al (2010) used the DHS data for the period 1993 to 2003 to estimate multidimensional poverty for mothers and children in Kenya. Two dimensions of well being were considered in their estimation of multidimensional poverty which are assets and health. First, a composite poverty indices for asset was estimated using the MCA and secondly the multidimensional poverty indices were estimated and ordered; using the \hyperref[b1]{Alkire and Foster (2007)} methodology. The determinants of poverty was isolated by use of the bi-probit model. \section[{IV. Methodology a) Scope of Study}]{IV. Methodology a) Scope of Study}\par Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa and the ninth most populous country in the world providing habitation for 1.9\% of the world's population as at 2005. There is a forecast that this will rise to 2.2\% in 2015, and attain the sixth most populous country rank by 2050. The National Population Commission (NPC) put the population of Nigeria at about 88. \hyperref[b4]{5} \section[{Alkire-Foster Approach}]{Alkire-Foster Approach}\par Alkire and Foster's (2007) methodology includes two steps: an identification method (?k) that identifies 'who is poor' by considering the range of deprivations they suffer, and an aggregation method that generates an intuitive set of poverty measures (M?) (based on traditional FGT measures) that can be broken down to target the poorest people and the dimensions in which they are most deprived. It also proposes two additional measures in the same class of multidimensional poverty measures: the adjusted poverty gap and the adjusted FGT measure, which are sensitive to the depth of deprivation in each dimension, and the inequality among the poor. \section[{a. The notation}]{a. The notation}\par Let y= [y ij ] denote the n x d matrix of achievements, where n represents the number of children, d is the number of dimensions, and y ij ? 0 is the achievement of child i= 1, 2?..,n in dimension j= 1,2,?d. Each row vector y i = y i1, y i2 ,?.,y id lists child i's achievements, while each column vector y ? j = y 1j ,y 2j ,?.y nj gives the distribution of dimension j achievements across the set of children. Let z j > 0 denotes the cutoff below which a child is considered to be deprived in dimension j and let z be the row vector of dimension specific cutoff. The expression |v| denotes the sum of all the elements of any vector or matrix v, and µ(v) represents the mean of |v|, or |v| divided by the total number of elements in v.\par For a given matrix of achievements y, it is possible to define a matrix of deprivation g 0 =[g ij 0 ] whose 60percent of the poor households (2009) typical element g ij 0 is defined by g ij 0 =1 when y i