# INTRODUCTION

inguistic aspect of contrastive analysis (CA) is based on structural linguistics. In the 1950s and 1960s, behaviorism and structuralism were of great popularity and CA was formulated by Fries (1945) and developed by Lado (1957).It was regarded as the comparison of the structures of two languages or more and finding out the points of differences which are the main source of difficulty for language learner and they form the basis for the preparation of language texts. After the Second World War, foreign language learning gained importance and CA became the landmark of teaching foreign languages. Larsen -Freeman and Long (1991: 52) state that "The most effective materials (for foreign language teaching) are those that are based upon a scientific description of the language." that a scientific, structural analysis of the two languages in question would yield a taxonomy of a linguistic contrast between them in which in turn would enable the linguist to predict the difficulties a leaner would encounter." (2000:208).

It must be noted that contrastive analysis hypothesis exists in a strong and a weak versions. These two versions are equally related to the notion of L1 interference. The strong version claims that all the errors in L2 can be prepared by identifying the differences between the learner's native language and the language being learned, but the weak one claims to have the power to diagnose errors in L2. James (1980: 63) adds that "the job of diagnosis belong to the field of error analysis." Wardhaugh (1970: 123) states that according to the strong version, all L2 errors that will occur can be predicted through the differences between L1 and L2 and weak version claims that only some of the errors can be identified through these differences.

This paper basically attempts to compare Turkish and English with the aim of describing the similarities and differences between them in the areas of morphology and lexical meaning.


# II.


# SOUND INVENTORIES OF TURKISH AND ENGLISH

English and Turkish have 20 consonants in common. Almost every consonant that exists in Turkish also exists in English. English has a total number of 24 consonants; whereas Turkish has 21. Tables 1 and 2 display the phonetic nature of consonants in both languages.

L Stockwell and Martin(1965)assure the main source for predicting the difficulties is the interference between native language and target language. They introduce a hierarchy of difficulty where the teacher or the linguist can predict of the difficulty of a given aspect of the target language.

Brown claims that "the principal barrier to the second language system is the interference of the first language system with the second language system, and English has 12 vowel phonemes with three degrees of tongue height such as high, mid and low as illustrated in Table 3:  


# VOWEL HARMONY IN TURKISH

Vowel harmony is a phonological process which determine what vowel will appear in all but the first syllable of a word .If the vowels in the root are formed in the back of the mouth ?/ ae /, undotted i /?/, o/ É?": / , u / ? / as in araba / aeraebae/ (car), we add -lar (plural suffix) to make arabalar (cars). If the vowels are made in the front of the mouth (e /e /, i / ? /, ö / ?? / , ü / y / ), we add -ler to ev / ev/ (house) to make evler (houses). Likewise bankalar/ baenkaelaer/ (banks) but otobüsler / É?":tÉ?":bysler / (buses). Turkish language is an agglutinative language, which means that it attaches its grammatical information to the end of a root-word according to the vowel harmony rule.

A suffix is sometimes preceded by a buffer letter such as "y" for smooth pronunciation. It is used between two vowels as follows:

Gitmeyiz /g?tmej?z/ Go + negative suffix (-me) + buffer sound (-y) + personal suffix stands for (we)(-iz) (We do not go.)

As a result of vowel harmony, only the following sequences are permissible in native Turkish words: 'a' can only be followed by 'a' or ?'|'? Back Vowels ?'|'? can only be followed by 'a' or ?'|'? 'o' can only be followed by 'a' or 'u' 'u' can only be followed by 'a' or 'u'


# IV. MORPHOLOGICAL CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS

Turkish is classified as a head-final language with an SOV word order in main and embedded clauses. Since Turkish morphology is agglutinative, Turkish verbs are inflected for person, number, and tense (Haznedar, 2003). Dressler states that Turkish language is an agglutinative language which has the inflectional in both noun and verb (2003). Unlike Turkish, the word order of English sentence can be described as SVO.

A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical functions. The following example consists of one element "speak" and a number of other elements which are called morphemes (-s, -er ,-ed ,-ing): Speak, Spoke, Speaking, Speaker There are two types of morphemes: free morphemes which can occur by themselves as a single word (speak); whereas, bound morphemes which cannot stand by themselves, always attached to another form (-s, -er,-ed,-ing).These free and bound morphemes can be seen in detail in Table 1 (Yule, 2001). In the free morpheme category, lexical morphemes carry the content of the message as boy, man, house, etc. On the other hand, functional morphemes are functional words in the language such as conjunction, preposition, articles and pronouns. The set of bound morphemes is divided into two: derivational morphemes which are used to make new words in the language and new words of a different grammatical categories such as -ness which changes the adjective to the noun "happiness". The other type is inflectional morphemes which are used to show aspects of the grammatical function of a word such as singularplural (s),past tense (-ed), comparative (-er) or possessive ('s) form.

Front Vowels 'e' can only be followed by 'e' or 'i' 'i' can only be followed by 'e' or 'i' 'ö' can only be followed by ' e' or 'ü' 'ü' can only be followed by 'e' or 'ü' (Göksel and Kerslake,2006:21) In Turkish, the parts of a word combine in a particular order. Inflectional morphemes are always used in the word final position whereas derivational suffixes precede inflectional suffixes. But there may be possibilities in which more than one inflectional and/or derivational suffix can be used in a word. A change in the order of the morphemes leads to ungrammatical forms (Yavuz and Turan, 2000).


# Example:

hasta /haestae/ (ill,adj.) hastalan /haestaelaen/(to get sick,v.) hastaland? /haestaelaend?/ ill+verb suffix(-lan) +past suffix(-d?)(got sick) hastaland?m /haestaelaend?m/ hasta(sick/noun stem) +-Lan(derivational morpheme /verb suffix)+-d? (past tense marker)+ -m (1 st person marker stands for BE). (I was sick) At first, the morpheme -lan as a derivational morpheme, is attached to the noun stem (hasta).As a result, we produce verb (hastalanmak /to get sick) and then past tense marker -d? and first person singular marker -m come respectively. Note : (-mak ) that is attached to the verb in Turkish stands for (to)

The vast majority of derivation in Turkish is formed through suffixation. Prefixation is used in a very limited extent for reduplication and in a few loan words. The derivational suffix attaches to a stem to produce a new word connected in meaning to that stem .The suffix -?lk /-?lk/ can derive nouns from nouns as the following: Kral (n.) / krael / (King) krall?k (n.) /krael?k/ (kingdome)

These are a number of different sets of Turkish personal possessive endings, depending on the use. When the personal pronoun is the possessor of the noun, the following are used: We can omit the NP (subjects) Ben (I), Sen (you, singular), O (he, she), Biz (we), Siz (you, plural), Onlar (they) without changing the meaning because the personal endings standing for (Be) and (NPS.) ??(? im, ??? sin, ??? dir ??(? d?|?r) ??? niz, ??? siniz, ??? ler ??(? lar) carry the same meanings.
1. ?)|(? m (my) kitab?|?m /k?taeb?m/ (
The Turkish nominal sentences (non-verbal sentences) are negated by using the word "de?il" /de??l/ (not) which is used as a separate word after the predicate(nouns and adjectives). The personal suffixes (-im, -sin, ? ,-iz, -imiz ,-ler ) are attached to "de?il" to make the present tense of "Be" negative as the following examples: a. "de?il" is used after adjectives:

1. Ben hasta de?ilim /ben haestae de??l?m /( I am not sick). 2. Sen hasta de?ilsin/sen haestae de??ls?n/(you are not sick). 3. hasta de?ildir / É?": haestae de??ld?r/(he / she is not sick).

4. Biz hasta de?iliz / b?z haestae de??l?z/(we are not sick). 5. Siz (plural) hasta de?ilisiniz / s?z haestae de??l?s?n?z/ ( you are not sick ). 6. Onlar hasta de?iller / É?":nlaer haestae de??ler/(They are not sick ) b. It is also used after nouns as follows:

1. Ben ??retmen de?ilim / ben ??retmen de??l?m / ( I am not a teacher).

2. Sen ??retmen de?ilsin /sen ??retmen de??ls?n/ ( you are not a teacher).

3. ??retmen de?il / É?": ??retmen de??l /(he/she is not a teacher)

4. Biz ??retmen de?iliz / b?z ??retmen de??l?z/( we are not teachers).

5. Siz ??retmen de?ilisiniz / s?z ??retmen de??l?s?n?z/ ( you(plural) are not teachers).

6. Onlar ??retmen de?iller / É?":nlaer ??retmen de??ler/ (they are not teachers)

The following endings (-m,-n, ?,-uk,-nuz,-lar)are used to indicate the subject of a verb in some of tenses such as the past tense taking into consideration the past suffix(-di) and its eight allomorphs (-di ,-d? ,-du,-dü,-t? ,-ti ,-tu,-tü ).They are based on the vowel harmony rule. The suffix vowel and stem vowel have to share the same specification for both backness and rounding as follows: 1. ??? -m (I) unutum /?n?t?m/ (I forgot) 2. ??? -n (you) unutun /?n?t?n/ (you/singular/ forgot).

3. ??-? ? (he, she, it) unutu /?n?t?/ (he/ she forgot).

4. -k (we) unutuk /?n?t?k/ (we forgot). 5. ??? -nuz (you) unutunuz /?n?t?n?z/ (you/ plural/ forgot).

6. Ler (they) unutular /?n?t?laer/ (they forgot).

It must be seen that the auxiliary suffixes in Turkish follow the vowel harmony rule, meaning that a word usually has all vowels of a single class as stated above.


# V. CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF TURKISH AND ENGLISH PLURAL MORPHEMES

It must also be noted that the personal suffixes ??(? im, ??? sin, ??? dir, ??? iz, ??? siniz, ??? ler) in non -verbal Turkish sentences stand for "Be" and link the subject with the predicate. They are attached to nouns or adjectives as follows:

6.

Some errors in English made by the Turkish learner of English are due to the differences between Turkish and English in terms of singularity and plurality. a) Plural morpheme (-LER) in Turkish Form:

This morpheme (-LER) has two allomorphs (ler), (-lar) .They are based on the vowel harmony rule stated above. The suffix vowel and the stem vowel have to share the same specification for both backness and rounding. Accordingly,(-ler) is used after the nouns having front vowels in their last syllables (e, i, ö, ü) but (lar) is used after the nouns having back vowels in their last syllables (a, ?,|? o, u). Normally, there are not irregular nouns in Turkish in terms of plurality, but regular and irregular plural formation take place in English e.g. book vs books; child vs children, but not childs.

The demonstrative adjectives preceding plural noun in English are plural, e.g. these pencils; however, in Turkish plural nouns are preceded by singular demonstrative adjectives, e.g. bu kalemler /b? kaelemler/ (this books), in place of (these books) in English.


# VI.


# Lexical Contrastive Analysis

Words are essential for communication. Learners of English ought to manipulate correct and appropriate words in their production for communication. To show how to eliminate the difficulties they face in this process, contrastive analysis at word level will be dealt.


# Form:

The form of words consists of sound segment and stress.

Examples: Telephone (v.)/ t, e, L, e, f, o, n/: seven sound segment (English). Telefon et (v.) /t, e, l, e, f, o, n, e, t/: nine sound segment (Turkish).


# Meaning:

We can say meanings are the same in all languages; that languages differ only in the form used for the meanings. Lyons (1968: 433) states that the language of a particular society is an integral part of its culture; the lexical distinction drawn by each language will tend to reflect the culturally important features of objects, intuitions, and activities in the society in which the language operates. It can easily be said that some meanings found in one culture may not exist in another as "baklava" /baeklaevae/ in Turkish which means sweet pastry generally cut into diamond shaped pieces and various meanings of a word in English can appear according to the context; e.g. 26 meanings of the word "get" has been listed in the Longman Dictionary of contemporary English. And thus, the difficulty coming from the differences between L1 and L2 may cause learning problems.

Distribution is defined as one word in a language which may belong to more than one word class e.g. the word "water" in English can be used as (a) a verb as in "to water the garden" (b) a noun as in "a glass of water" and (c) an adjective as in a "water meter." Words may be restricted geographically and socially. Lado (1957: 82) "assures that similarities and differences from the native language in form, meaning and distribution will result in ease or difficult in acquiring the vocabulary of a foreign language." If we want to compare the foreign language vocabulary with that of the native language effectively, we will take into consideration words which are: 1. Similar in form and meaning (true cognates): The cognates are words which are similar in form, meaning and distribution in both English and Turkish such as civil in English and sivil /s?v?l/ in Turkish. In the case of true cognates, the meaning of the English word is the same as the Turkish word.

Meaning is no problem but pronunciation is a problem and practice on pronunciation will be necessary.


# Similar in form but different in meanings in English

and Turkish (false cognates) Boy in English and Turkish has different meanings, but same form. Boy in English has the meaning of male child, but in Turkish it has the meaning of size. These cognates are especially difficult to teach because the student must avoid the meaning in Turkish and learn a new one in English. Such words must be practiced with the new meaning. 3. Different in form representing meanings which are strange to Turkish learners (strange meanings). "First floor" in English is literally translated 'birinci dö?eme"/b?r?nd?? d???eme/ which is meaningless because "dö?eme" means floor (the part of a room on which one stands) in Turkish, but the correct equivalent meaning in Turkish is 'birinci kat" /b?r?nd?? kaet/ which means "the first storey". Another example is 'catch a cold" which is active in form but the equivalent meaning in Turkish is"so?u?a yakalanmak"/sÉ?":???ae yaekaelaenmaek/ which is passive ??(? al passive suffix) in form. Such words are strange to the Turkish students who need ample practice from the beginning. Similar in primary meaning, but different in connotation (different connotation) so the difficulty appears. In "Thank you love" in English and "Te?ekkür ederim can?|?m"/te?ekyr eder?m d?aen?m/ in Turkish, love and can?|?m are different in connotation. Love implies the assurance of love but can?|?m implies respect (my dear). 5. Similar in meaning but with restrictions in geographical distribution. They may cause difficulty as follows:

American English British English Fall Autumn Gas, gasoline Petrol Railroad Railway

Railroad and railway are two English words which are equivalent to one Turkish word "Demiryolu"/dem?|?rjÉ?":l?/so the Turkish learners will face problems in learning such English words.

With the above classification of problem concerning words, a sample contrastive analysis of the vocabulary (Lexical contrastive analysis) of English and Turkish in terms of "form" and "meaning" will be stated as follows: b. Those that are different in meaning

Although they have the same form, they differ in meaning, so this is a difficult area for Turkish learners.


# VII. GENERAL PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS

Contrastive Analysis was the result of the need to teach a L2 in the most efficient way. As Lado makes clear in Ellis(1985:23)"the teacher who has made a comparison of the foreign language with the native language of the students will know better what the real problems are and can provide for teaching them. The origins of Contrastive Analysis, therefore, were pedagogic." The underlying assumption of CA is that second Language learners tend to transfer their native language to the target language. In the light of this assumption, linguists started identifying the areas of difficulties to second language learners. This was carried out by comparing and contrasting the structure of the learner's native language with the target language. Accordingly, instructional materials and methods of teaching were prepared by taking CA into consideration to prevent learners from committing errors as much as possible.

Contrastive Analysis was developed and practiced in the 1950s and 1960s and it is based on the following assumptions: a. The main difficulties in learning a foreign language are due to interference from the first language. b. Such difficulties coming from interference can be predicted by contrastive analysis. c. Teaching materials can make use of CA to reduce the effects of interference (Richard, et, al, 1992).

Consequently, CA is inevitable parts of language learning and teaching. Teachers should regard them as signals of progress and diagnosis of problems when they get the areas of similarities and differences between two languages or more. In this respect, teachers, syllabus designers and test developers should make use of CA studies to acquire new insights.

Turkish is an inflectionally rich language in which the past tense and plural morphology is totally rule-governed. In English, there are many examples of irregular inflection such as past form of verbs and plural forms of nouns. The majority of English verbs have a simple past tense form that can be described as the addition of one of three allomorphs of the "?ed" (?d, ?t, ?ed) suffix to a base stem. A significant minority take a so-called "irregular" form which may or may not be systematically related to the stem form or to the forms of other words. This distinction is helpful for teaching English for Turkish learners because irregular inflection is closed and unpredictable.

The other feature of inflectional morphology which needs to be looked more closely while teaching English for Turkish learners is the usage of copula Be and auxiliary Be. Brown states that "I separated out the several allomorphs and distinguished copulas from auxiliaries. It was clear fairly that the copula-auxiliary distinction was a functional one and that auxiliary use in obligatory contexts developed more slowly than copula use." (1973: 306). Teachers of English for Turkish learners will focus on the distinction between the use of copula Be and auxiliary form. "children acquire Be as a main verb before they acquire Be as an auxiliary verb. So, children produce sentences that have a copula verb (e.g. He is hungry) before they produce sentences that include an auxiliary plus a main verb (e.g. He was working)" (O'Grady et al, 1997, 493).

Lexical contrastive analysis previously stated show that the difficulty may result from the differences between Turkish and English as follows:

1. "Floor" is translated literally in Turkish as "dö?eme" /d???eme/, (the part of a room on which one stands)but the compound word "first floor" stands for "birinci kat"/b?r?nd?? kaet/ (first storey) not "birinci dö?eme""/b?r?nd?? d???eme/. 2. Telephone as a verb is simple word in English whereas the equivalent verb in Turkish is "telefon etmek" /telefÉ?":n etmek/ which is a compound verb. The Turkish learners may produce wrongly such verbs "to make a telephone" instead of "to telephone". 3. "Boy" in English has the meaning of "male child". In contrast the same word "Boy" /bÉ?":j/ in Turkish gives the meaning of "size", so the Turkish learners may use "boy" in the meaning of size not male child. Therefore, a learning problem appears.

Teachers of English who teach Turkish learners should place greater emphasis on the differences indicated above in order to eradicate the problems which may appear in learning the English plurality. According to the differences given above, since the learner tends to transfer his Turkish pattern to the English, the problems occur as follows:

1. Turkish learners may use childs instead of children since all the nouns in Turkish are pluralized by the means of the morpheme ??/? ler/ and its two allomorphs /-ler/ and /-lar/.

2. Turkish learners may use waters in place of water because the uncountable nouns can be pluralized in Turkish e.g. karlar /kaerlaer/ (snows).-lar stands for plural suffix. 3. They may use "two book" instead of "two books" because Turkish employs singular nouns after numerals e.g. iki kalem /?k? kaelem/ (two pencil) which is used wrongly in English. We can say contrastive analysis helps in discovering the problems and difficulties which will occur during learning L2 VIII.


# CONCLUSION

The paper attempts to compare Turkish and English in terms of describing the similarities and differences between them in terms of lexical meaning and morphology. The paper finds the following conclusions: 1. The personal possessive endings in Turkish are used as follows;-(?)|?m(my) kitab?|?m /k?taeb?m/ (my book), -(?)|?n (your) kitab?|?n /k?taeb?n/ (your book), (s)?|? (her/his/its) kitab?|? /k?taeb?/ (his/ her book), -(?)|?m?|?z (our) kitab?|?m?|?z /k?taeb?m?z/ (our books), -(i)n?|?z (your) kitab?|?n?|?z /k?taeb?n?z/ (your books), Ler?|? (their) kitablar?|? /k?taeblaer?/ (their books). 2. The personal endings for the present tense of Be (im,-sin,-dir,-iz,-siniz .-ler)are attached to noun as the following example: (y) im (I am) (Ben) ö?retmenim / ben ??retmen?m/ (personal suffix (-im) stands for Be). (I am a teacher) 3. The personal endings (Be) are also attached to adjectives in Turkish as the following example: (Ben) hastay?|?m / /ben haes st taej?m/ (I am sick). 4. The personal endings are attached to the word "de?il" /de??l/ to make the present tense of "Be" negative as the following example: Ben hasta de?ilim /ben haestae de??l?m / (I am not sick). I +sick +negative morpheme (de?il )+pronoun suffix stands for Be(-im) 5. Turkish plural morpheme (-LER) has two allomorphs (-ler) and (-lar) used according to the vowel harmony rule. Examples: Ev /ev/ (house) evler /evler/ (houses). Top/tÉ?":p/ (ball) toplar /tÉ?":plaer/ (balls). 6. Unlike English, uncountable nouns can be pluralized in Turkish as the following example: Su /s?/ (water) sular /s?laer/ (waters) 7. In Turkish, numerals are normally followed by nominal in singular.

Example: iki kalem / ?k? kaelem/"two pencil" in place of "two pencils" in English.

8. Unlike English, Turkish plural nouns are preceded by singular demonstrative adjectives as the following example: bu kalemler /b? kaelemler/ "this books" in place of "these books".
![First floor literally translated (birinci dö?eme) "/b?r?nd?? d???eme/ ? To telephone (simple verb) Birinci Kat /b?r?nd?? kaet/ Telefon etmek (compound verb) b. The words that are similar in form English Turkish ? Sympathy (n.) (seven phonemes) Telephone (n.) ? First floor (n.) Telefon (n.)/telefÉ?":n / Birinci kat (n.) /b?r?nd?? kaet/ Meaning: a. Those that are similar in meaning: English Turkish ? Sympathy (n.) (feeling pity, favor or support).Sempati (n.) /sempaet? /(liking, or giving affection).](image-2.png "??")
1Place of articulationPalato-Bilabial Labiodental Dental Alveolaralveolar (Post-PalatalVelarGlottalalveolar)Manner of articulationPlosive Fricative Affricate Nasal Lateral approximantp b m wf v? ðt d s z n l? ? t? d? rjk g ?h
2Place of articulationBilabial Labio-DentalPalato-Alveo-Palatal GlottaldentalalveolarpalatalStopsVIptkVdbdgFricatives VIfs??hVdvz?Affricates VIt?Vdd?NasalsmnLateralsr1Approximantsj
3FrontCentralbackHighi:u:Mid? e? É?":??:?:lowae??Turkish, on the other hand, has 8 vowels with twopositions of tongue height; high and low as it is shownin table 4.
4III.Göksel and Kerslake, 2006:9; see Appendix 3)HighNon-high(mid and low)Rounded Unrounded Rounded UnroundedFrontüiöeBacku?oa
1Free morphemes Bound morphemesLexicalDerivationalFunctionalInflectional
following examples :gayrijr ae g üslim / m?mysl?m-/ (nonmuslim)É?" modern /p postÉ?" :stm:dern/ (postmodern)uzun / ?z?n/ (long) upuzun / ?p?z?n/(very long) eski /esk?/ (old) epeski /epesk?/(very old) yava? yava? /jaevae? jaevae?/ (slowly) rahat rahat /raehaet raehaet/ (comfortably ,easily)Apart from the reduplication prefixes discussed above, the Turkish prefixes are used in a few loan words as the
Çocuklar?|?m?|?z /t?É?":d??klaer?m?z/ (our(-?|?m?|?z) children)could be used both for singular. The latter is used forpolite singular.A. Turkish personal endings attached to nouns:1. -(y) im (I am) (Ben) ??retmenim /ben ??retmen?m/(I am a teacher).2.??? -sin (you are) (Sen) ??retmensin /sen ??retmens?n/(you are a teacher). (singular)3.??? -dir (he, she, it) is (O) ??retmendir / É?": ??retmend?r/(He/ she is a teacher).2 284.??? -(y) iz (We are) (Biz) ??retmeniz /b?z ??retmen?z/(we are teachers).5.siniz (you are) (Siz) ??retmensiniz /s?z??retmens?n?z/(you are teachers).(plural)Ler (they are) (Onlar) ??retmenler/ É?":nlaer??retmenler/(They are teachers).2. ?)|(? n (your) kitab?|?n /k?taeb?n/ (your book).3. (s)?|? (her/ his/ its) kitab?|? /k?taeb?/ (his / her book) ifthe noun ends with a vowel, (s) is added as çanta/t?aentae/ (çantas?)|? /t?aentaes?/4. ?)|(? m?|?z (our) kitab?|?m?|?z /k?taeb?m?z/ (our books)5. ?)|(? n?|?z (your/plural) kitab?|?n?|?z /k?taeb?n?z/ (yourbooks).6. Ler?|? (their) kitablar?|? /k?taeblaer?/ (their books). language and most other European languages. These possessive endings follow the plural noun, so It must be noted that the plural form of "our" (-m?|?z) is used for the polite singular, as in EnglishÇocuklar?|?m /t?É?":d??klaer?m (my(-?|?m)children), , Global Journal of Human Social Science Volume XII Issue I Version I B. Turkish personal endings attached to adjectives: 1. (Ben) hastay?|?m /(ben) haestaej?m/ (I am sick) 2. (Sen) hastas?|?n /(sen) haestaes?n/ (you are sick) (singular). 3. (O) hastad?|?r / ( É?":) haestaed?r/ (He/ she is sick). 4. (Biz) hastay?|?z /( b?z) haestaej?z/ (we are sick). 5. (Siz) hastas?|?n?|?z/( s?z) haestaes?n?z/ (you are sick) (plural) 6. (Onlar) hastalar /(É?":nlaer )haestaelaer/ (They are sick).
titles are pluralized after numerals e.g. kirk haramiler/k?rk haeraem?ler/ (forty thieves); however, in English,following examples: Ev /ev/ (house) evler /evler/ (houses)numerals are followed by nominal in plural. e.g. 'two books'.Silgi /s?lg?/ (eraser) silgiler/s?lg?ler/ (erasers)Köy /k??j/ (village) köyler /k??jler /(villages)Top /tÉ?":p/(ball) toplar /tÉ?":plaer/ (balls)Oda / É?":dae/ (room) odalar / É?":dael/aer/ (rooms)Kap?|? /kaep?/ (door) kap?|?lar/ kaep?laer/ (doors)b) Plural morpheme (-z) in English:This morpheme (-z) has three allomorphs (-s,-z, -iz ) according to the sound preceded as follows:??/? s/ after countable nouns ending in voicelessconsonants other than sibilant and affricates.??/? z/ after countable nouns ending in vowels andvoiced consonants other than sibilant andaffricates.??/? iz/ after countable nouns ending in andaffricates.E Ex xa am mp pl le es s:mapmaps??/? s/catcats??/? s/heroheroes??/? z/erasererasers??/? z/bridgebridges??/? iz/churchchurches??/? iz/Plural morpheme in Turkish is ??/? ler/ which has twoallomorphs ??/? ler/ and ??/? lar/. And the plural morpheme inEnglish is ??/? z/ which has three allomorphs ??/? s/, ??/? z/, ??/? iz/,so English and Turkish are alike in terms of morphemesand allomorphs; however, they are different in thefollowing areas: All the nouns in Turkish are pluralized bymeans of the morpheme ??/? ler/ but only the countablenouns in English are pluralized by means of themorpheme ??/? z/.Examples:a. sular kirlidir /s?laer k?rl?d?r/water+plural suffix (-lar)+dirty+Be suffix -dir (present)It means wrongly in English (waters are dirty) but thecorrect structure in English is (water is dirty).b. Karlar erriyor /kaerlaer er?jÉ?":r/ (snows are melting)snow +plural suffix(-lar) +melt +-ing suffix (-iyor)but the correct structure in English is (snow is melting).In Turkish, numerals are normally followed bynominal in singular although there are certaincompounds with the pattern "numeral + nominal +plural suffix /-ler/".Example:iki kalem /?k? kaelem/ (two pencil) not iki kalemler /?k?kaelemler/ (two pencils) .Proper nouns and book
			© 2012 Global Journals Inc. (US)
			January 2012© 2012 Global Journals Inc. (US)
		
		
			

The list below provides a rough guide to the pronunciation of the 22 consonants and 8 vowels in Turkish. T, t t as in 'time' U, u u as in 'cute' or put' Ü, ü resembles the sound which is produced when i as in 'bit' is pronounced with the lips rounded, as in the German sound 'ü V, v v as in 'very' Y, y y as in 'you' Z, z z as in 'zigza January 2012


## Letter
			
			

				


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