\documentclass[11pt,twoside]{article}\makeatletter

\IfFileExists{xcolor.sty}%
  {\RequirePackage{xcolor}}%
  {\RequirePackage{color}}
\usepackage{colortbl}
\usepackage{wrapfig}
\usepackage{ifxetex}
\ifxetex
  \usepackage{fontspec}
  \usepackage{xunicode}
  \catcode`⃥=\active \def⃥{\textbackslash}
  \catcode`❴=\active \def❴{\{}
  \catcode`❵=\active \def❵{\}}
  \def\textJapanese{\fontspec{Noto Sans CJK JP}}
  \def\textChinese{\fontspec{Noto Sans CJK SC}}
  \def\textKorean{\fontspec{Noto Sans CJK KR}}
  \setmonofont{DejaVu Sans Mono}
  
\else
  \IfFileExists{utf8x.def}%
   {\usepackage[utf8x]{inputenc}
      \PrerenderUnicode{–}
    }%
   {\usepackage[utf8]{inputenc}}
  \usepackage[english]{babel}
  \usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
  \usepackage{float}
  \usepackage[]{ucs}
  \uc@dclc{8421}{default}{\textbackslash }
  \uc@dclc{10100}{default}{\{}
  \uc@dclc{10101}{default}{\}}
  \uc@dclc{8491}{default}{\AA{}}
  \uc@dclc{8239}{default}{\,}
  \uc@dclc{20154}{default}{ }
  \uc@dclc{10148}{default}{>}
  \def\textschwa{\rotatebox{-90}{e}}
  \def\textJapanese{}
  \def\textChinese{}
  \IfFileExists{tipa.sty}{\usepackage{tipa}}{}
\fi
\def\exampleFont{\ttfamily\small}
\DeclareTextSymbol{\textpi}{OML}{25}
\usepackage{relsize}
\RequirePackage{array}
\def\@testpach{\@chclass
 \ifnum \@lastchclass=6 \@ne \@chnum \@ne \else
  \ifnum \@lastchclass=7 5 \else
   \ifnum \@lastchclass=8 \tw@ \else
    \ifnum \@lastchclass=9 \thr@@
   \else \z@
   \ifnum \@lastchclass = 10 \else
   \edef\@nextchar{\expandafter\string\@nextchar}%
   \@chnum
   \if \@nextchar c\z@ \else
    \if \@nextchar l\@ne \else
     \if \@nextchar r\tw@ \else
   \z@ \@chclass
   \if\@nextchar |\@ne \else
    \if \@nextchar !6 \else
     \if \@nextchar @7 \else
      \if \@nextchar (8 \else
       \if \@nextchar )9 \else
  10
  \@chnum
  \if \@nextchar m\thr@@\else
   \if \@nextchar p4 \else
    \if \@nextchar b5 \else
   \z@ \@chclass \z@ \@preamerr \z@ \fi \fi \fi \fi
   \fi \fi  \fi  \fi  \fi  \fi  \fi \fi \fi \fi \fi \fi}
\gdef\arraybackslash{\let\\=\@arraycr}
\def\@textsubscript#1{{\m@th\ensuremath{_{\mbox{\fontsize\sf@size\z@#1}}}}}
\def\Panel#1#2#3#4{\multicolumn{#3}{){\columncolor{#2}}#4}{#1}}
\def\abbr{}
\def\corr{}
\def\expan{}
\def\gap{}
\def\orig{}
\def\reg{}
\def\ref{}
\def\sic{}
\def\persName{}\def\name{}
\def\placeName{}
\def\orgName{}
\def\textcal#1{{\fontspec{Lucida Calligraphy}#1}}
\def\textgothic#1{{\fontspec{Lucida Blackletter}#1}}
\def\textlarge#1{{\large #1}}
\def\textoverbar#1{\ensuremath{\overline{#1}}}
\def\textquoted#1{‘#1’}
\def\textsmall#1{{\small #1}}
\def\textsubscript#1{\@textsubscript{\selectfont#1}}
\def\textxi{\ensuremath{\xi}}
\def\titlem{\itshape}
\newenvironment{biblfree}{}{\ifvmode\par\fi }
\newenvironment{bibl}{}{}
\newenvironment{byline}{\vskip6pt\itshape\fontsize{16pt}{18pt}\selectfont}{\par }
\newenvironment{citbibl}{}{\ifvmode\par\fi }
\newenvironment{docAuthor}{\ifvmode\vskip4pt\fontsize{16pt}{18pt}\selectfont\fi\itshape}{\ifvmode\par\fi }
\newenvironment{docDate}{}{\ifvmode\par\fi }
\newenvironment{docImprint}{\vskip 6pt}{\ifvmode\par\fi }
\newenvironment{docTitle}{\vskip6pt\bfseries\fontsize{22pt}{25pt}\selectfont}{\par }
\newenvironment{msHead}{\vskip 6pt}{\par}
\newenvironment{msItem}{\vskip 6pt}{\par}
\newenvironment{rubric}{}{}
\newenvironment{titlePart}{}{\par }

\newcolumntype{L}[1]{){\raggedright\arraybackslash}p{#1}}
\newcolumntype{C}[1]{){\centering\arraybackslash}p{#1}}
\newcolumntype{R}[1]{){\raggedleft\arraybackslash}p{#1}}
\newcolumntype{P}[1]{){\arraybackslash}p{#1}}
\newcolumntype{B}[1]{){\arraybackslash}b{#1}}
\newcolumntype{M}[1]{){\arraybackslash}m{#1}}
\definecolor{label}{gray}{0.75}
\def\unusedattribute#1{\sout{\textcolor{label}{#1}}}
\DeclareRobustCommand*{\xref}{\hyper@normalise\xref@}
\def\xref@#1#2{\hyper@linkurl{#2}{#1}}
\begingroup
\catcode`\_=\active
\gdef_#1{\ensuremath{\sb{\mathrm{#1}}}}
\endgroup
\mathcode`\_=\string"8000
\catcode`\_=12\relax

\usepackage[a4paper,twoside,lmargin=1in,rmargin=1in,tmargin=1in,bmargin=1in,marginparwidth=0.75in]{geometry}
\usepackage{framed}

\definecolor{shadecolor}{gray}{0.95}
\usepackage{longtable}
\usepackage[normalem]{ulem}
\usepackage{fancyvrb}
\usepackage{fancyhdr}
\usepackage{graphicx}
\usepackage{marginnote}

\renewcommand{\@cite}[1]{#1}


\renewcommand*{\marginfont}{\itshape\footnotesize}

\def\Gin@extensions{.pdf,.png,.jpg,.mps,.tif}

  \pagestyle{fancy}

\usepackage[pdftitle={Creation of a Cultural Prism: The Key to Excellence for African American Children},
 pdfauthor={}]{hyperref}
\hyperbaseurl{}

	 \paperwidth210mm
	 \paperheight297mm
              
\def\@pnumwidth{1.55em}
\def\@tocrmarg {2.55em}
\def\@dotsep{4.5}
\setcounter{tocdepth}{3}
\clubpenalty=8000
\emergencystretch 3em
\hbadness=4000
\hyphenpenalty=400
\pretolerance=750
\tolerance=2000
\vbadness=4000
\widowpenalty=10000

\renewcommand\section{\@startsection {section}{1}{\z@}%
     {-1.75ex \@plus -0.5ex \@minus -.2ex}%
     {0.5ex \@plus .2ex}%
     {\reset@font\Large\bfseries}}
\renewcommand\subsection{\@startsection{subsection}{2}{\z@}%
     {-1.75ex\@plus -0.5ex \@minus- .2ex}%
     {0.5ex \@plus .2ex}%
     {\reset@font\Large}}
\renewcommand\subsubsection{\@startsection{subsubsection}{3}{\z@}%
     {-1.5ex\@plus -0.35ex \@minus -.2ex}%
     {0.5ex \@plus .2ex}%
     {\reset@font\large}}
\renewcommand\paragraph{\@startsection{paragraph}{4}{\z@}%
     {-1ex \@plus-0.35ex \@minus -0.2ex}%
     {0.5ex \@plus .2ex}%
     {\reset@font\normalsize}}
\renewcommand\subparagraph{\@startsection{subparagraph}{5}{\parindent}%
     {1.5ex \@plus1ex \@minus .2ex}%
     {-1em}%
     {\reset@font\normalsize\bfseries}}


\def\l@section#1#2{\addpenalty{\@secpenalty} \addvspace{1.0em plus 1pt}
 \@tempdima 1.5em \begingroup
 \parindent \z@ \rightskip \@pnumwidth 
 \parfillskip -\@pnumwidth 
 \bfseries \leavevmode #1\hfil \hbox to\@pnumwidth{\hss #2}\par
 \endgroup}
\def\l@subsection{\@dottedtocline{2}{1.5em}{2.3em}}
\def\l@subsubsection{\@dottedtocline{3}{3.8em}{3.2em}}
\def\l@paragraph{\@dottedtocline{4}{7.0em}{4.1em}}
\def\l@subparagraph{\@dottedtocline{5}{10em}{5em}}
\@ifundefined{c@section}{\newcounter{section}}{}
\@ifundefined{c@chapter}{\newcounter{chapter}}{}
\newif\if@mainmatter 
\@mainmattertrue
\def\chaptername{Chapter}
\def\frontmatter{%
  \pagenumbering{roman}
  \def\thechapter{\@roman\c@chapter}
  \def\theHchapter{\roman{chapter}}
  \def\thesection{\@roman\c@section}
  \def\theHsection{\roman{section}}
  \def\@chapapp{}%
}
\def\mainmatter{%
  \cleardoublepage
  \def\thechapter{\@arabic\c@chapter}
  \setcounter{chapter}{0}
  \setcounter{section}{0}
  \pagenumbering{arabic}
  \setcounter{secnumdepth}{6}
  \def\@chapapp{\chaptername}%
  \def\theHchapter{\arabic{chapter}}
  \def\thesection{\@arabic\c@section}
  \def\theHsection{\arabic{section}}
}
\def\backmatter{%
  \cleardoublepage
  \setcounter{chapter}{0}
  \setcounter{section}{0}
  \setcounter{secnumdepth}{2}
  \def\@chapapp{\appendixname}%
  \def\thechapter{\@Alph\c@chapter}
  \def\theHchapter{\Alph{chapter}}
  \appendix
}
\newenvironment{bibitemlist}[1]{%
   \list{\@biblabel{\@arabic\c@enumiv}}%
       {\settowidth\labelwidth{\@biblabel{#1}}%
        \leftmargin\labelwidth
        \advance\leftmargin\labelsep
        \@openbib@code
        \usecounter{enumiv}%
        \let\p@enumiv\@empty
        \renewcommand\theenumiv{\@arabic\c@enumiv}%
	}%
  \sloppy
  \clubpenalty4000
  \@clubpenalty \clubpenalty
  \widowpenalty4000%
  \sfcode`\.\@m}%
  {\def\@noitemerr
    {\@latex@warning{Empty `bibitemlist' environment}}%
    \endlist}

\def\tableofcontents{\section*{\contentsname}\@starttoc{toc}}
\parskip0pt
\parindent1em
\def\Panel#1#2#3#4{\multicolumn{#3}{){\columncolor{#2}}#4}{#1}}
\newenvironment{reflist}{%
  \begin{raggedright}\begin{list}{}
  {%
   \setlength{\topsep}{0pt}%
   \setlength{\rightmargin}{0.25in}%
   \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}%
   \setlength{\itemindent}{0pt}%
   \setlength{\parskip}{0pt}%
   \setlength{\parsep}{2pt}%
   \def\makelabel##1{\itshape ##1}}%
  }
  {\end{list}\end{raggedright}}
\newenvironment{sansreflist}{%
  \begin{raggedright}\begin{list}{}
  {%
   \setlength{\topsep}{0pt}%
   \setlength{\rightmargin}{0.25in}%
   \setlength{\itemindent}{0pt}%
   \setlength{\parskip}{0pt}%
   \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}%
   \setlength{\parsep}{2pt}%
   \def\makelabel##1{\upshape ##1}}%
  }
  {\end{list}\end{raggedright}}
\newenvironment{specHead}[2]%
 {\vspace{20pt}\hrule\vspace{10pt}%
  \phantomsection\label{#1}\markright{#2}%

  \pdfbookmark[2]{#2}{#1}%
  \hspace{-0.75in}{\bfseries\fontsize{16pt}{18pt}\selectfont#2}%
  }{}
      \def\TheFullDate{2016-01-15 (revised: 15 January 2016)}
\def\TheID{\makeatother }
\def\TheDate{2016-01-15}
\title{Creation of a Cultural Prism: The Key to Excellence for African American Children}
\author{}\makeatletter 
\makeatletter
\newcommand*{\cleartoleftpage}{%
  \clearpage
    \if@twoside
    \ifodd\c@page
      \hbox{}\newpage
      \if@twocolumn
        \hbox{}\newpage
      \fi
    \fi
  \fi
}
\makeatother
\makeatletter
\thispagestyle{empty}
\markright{\@title}\markboth{\@title}{\@author}
\renewcommand\small{\@setfontsize\small{9pt}{11pt}\abovedisplayskip 8.5\p@ plus3\p@ minus4\p@
\belowdisplayskip \abovedisplayskip
\abovedisplayshortskip \z@ plus2\p@
\belowdisplayshortskip 4\p@ plus2\p@ minus2\p@
\def\@listi{\leftmargin\leftmargini
               \topsep 2\p@ plus1\p@ minus1\p@
               \parsep 2\p@ plus\p@ minus\p@
               \itemsep 1pt}
}
\makeatother
\fvset{frame=single,numberblanklines=false,xleftmargin=5mm,xrightmargin=5mm}
\fancyhf{} 
\setlength{\headheight}{14pt}
\fancyhead[LE]{\bfseries\leftmark} 
\fancyhead[RO]{\bfseries\rightmark} 
\fancyfoot[RO]{}
\fancyfoot[CO]{\thepage}
\fancyfoot[LO]{\TheID}
\fancyfoot[LE]{}
\fancyfoot[CE]{\thepage}
\fancyfoot[RE]{\TheID}
\hypersetup{citebordercolor=0.75 0.75 0.75,linkbordercolor=0.75 0.75 0.75,urlbordercolor=0.75 0.75 0.75,bookmarksnumbered=true}
\fancypagestyle{plain}{\fancyhead{}\renewcommand{\headrulewidth}{0pt}}

\date{}
\usepackage{authblk}

\providecommand{\keywords}[1]
{
\footnotesize
  \textbf{\textit{Index terms---}} #1
}

\usepackage{graphicx,xcolor}
\definecolor{GJBlue}{HTML}{273B81}
\definecolor{GJLightBlue}{HTML}{0A9DD9}
\definecolor{GJMediumGrey}{HTML}{6D6E70}
\definecolor{GJLightGrey}{HTML}{929497} 

\renewenvironment{abstract}{%
   \setlength{\parindent}{0pt}\raggedright
   \textcolor{GJMediumGrey}{\rule{\textwidth}{2pt}}
   \vskip16pt
   \textcolor{GJBlue}{\large\bfseries\abstractname\space}
}{%   
   \vskip8pt
   \textcolor{GJMediumGrey}{\rule{\textwidth}{2pt}}
   \vskip16pt
}

\usepackage[absolute,overlay]{textpos}

\makeatother 
      \usepackage{lineno}
      \linenumbers
      
\begin{document}

             \author[1]{Janice E.  Hale}

\renewcommand\Authands{ and }

\date{\small \em Received: 7 December 2015 Accepted: 1 January 2016 Published: 15 January 2016}

\maketitle


\begin{abstract}
        


The inferior quality of education that African American children receive leads to perpetual economic inequality and lack of political power to change it. There is a dimension of European colonialism in the American educational ethos. The non-recognition of the culture of African American children in main stream psychology and education practice constitutes ethnocentrism. African American culture is overridden, ostensibly to impart efficient "mainstream" education. But the process creates alienation and disconnection from the school and academic pursuits for many African American learners. The goal is to impart the same excellent out comes to all children but to find away to do it within the context of their culture and learning styles. The task for urban educators is to describe the achievement gap; delineate the causes of the achievement gap; and develop strategies to eliminate the achievement gap. Urban educators are called upon to address the dynamic character of urban life offering pedagogy that is sensitive to the special experiences, conditions and opportunities presented by a culturally diverse student body. Urban education calls for a commitment to excellence in education, inclusion and social justice.

\end{abstract}


\keywords{}

\begin{textblock*}{18cm}(1cm,1cm) % {block width} (coords) 
\textcolor{GJBlue}{\LARGE Global Journals \LaTeX\ JournalKaleidoscope\texttrademark}
\end{textblock*}

\begin{textblock*}{18cm}(1.4cm,1.5cm) % {block width} (coords) 
\textcolor{GJBlue}{\footnotesize \\ Artificial Intelligence formulated this projection for compatibility purposes from the original article published at Global Journals. However, this technology is currently in beta. \emph{Therefore, kindly ignore odd layouts, missed formulae, text, tables, or figures.}}
\end{textblock*}


\let\tabcellsep& 	 	 		 
\section[{Introduction}]{Introduction}\par
he inferior quality of education that African American children receive leads to perpetual economic inequality and lack of political power to change it. There is a dimension of European colonialism in the American educational ethos. The non-recognition of the culture of African American children in main stream psychology and education practice constitutes ethnocentrism. African American culture is overridden, ostensibly to impart efficient "mainstream" education. But the process creates alienation and disconnection from the school and academic pursuits for many African American learners. The goal is to impart the same excellent out comes to all children but to find away to do it within the context of their culture and learning styles. The task for urban educators is to describe the achievement gap; delineate the causes of the achievement gap; and develop strategies to eliminate the achievement gap. Urban educators are called upon to address the dynamic character of urban life offering pedagogy that is sensitive to the special experiences, conditions and opportunities presented by a culturally diverse student body. Urban education calls for a commitment to excellence in education, inclusion and social justice.\par
The achievement gap literature sets forth four broad theories as to the key contributing factors to the black-white score gap. These factors areas follow: ? Differences within the schools?\par
Author: e-mail: janiceehale@cs.com o School Quality (Phillips, Crouse \& Ralph, 1998);\par
o Racial Bias in Testing \hyperref[b64]{Jencks \& Phillips, 1998)}; o Student-teacher relationships (Ferguson, 2002);\par
All of the aforementioned factors have been empirically investigated, and both proponents and critics are in full supply for each. According to \hyperref[b64]{Jencks \& Phillips (1998)}, eliminating the Black-White achievement gap could be the single most important means of promoting racial equality in the United States. A comprehensive summary of achievement gap research, along with empirically based solutions for narrowing of the gap, was published by \hyperref[b104]{Thompson and O'Quinn (2001)}  Paige and Witty (2010) offer advice about what authentic African American leaders must do to eliminate the achievement gap. They correctly observe that the achievement gapisa "complex phenomenon that has powerful tentacles, buried deeply not only in school quality but also in African American home and family life and in African American community sociocultural life"(p.154). They state further that without having a thorough knowledge of the problem and any kind of sound theoretical foundation, scarce resources, precious time and irreplaceable emotional energy are waste donill-conceived initiatives.\par
Understanding the learning types of African Americans produces a path toward demystifying African American sociocultural life and gleaning instructional implications. There is a plethora of creative studies that tie instructional practices to the learning styles of African American children \hyperref[b41]{(Durodoye, 1995;}\hyperref[b9]{Berry, 2003;}\hyperref[b82]{Moody, 2004;}\hyperref[b86]{Parsons, 2005;}\hyperref[b18]{Cantrell, 2006;}\hyperref[b42]{Emeka, 2006;}\hyperref[b7]{Bailey, 2007;} {\ref Carter \& Haskins, 2008;}\hyperref[b39]{Duskins, 2012)}. This is an area of inquiry that has waxed and waned in popularity over the past 40 years. This article advocates that scholars take the time to strengthen the science that under girds scholarship on the learning styles of African American children. A detailed discussion of problems in definitions of learning style, problems in the creation of the science to empirically document learning style, problems with instruments used in empirical studies, is provided in Author, (2016). 
\section[{II.}]{II.} 
\section[{Conceptualization of the Cultural Prism}]{Conceptualization of the Cultural Prism}\par
My current thinking is that to analyze the academic challenges faced by African American children, we need a broader concept that I am going to call a Cultural Prism. The concepts of learning style and cognitive style have become obtuse and muddied for our purposes. The nomenclature and specifics of the behavioral processes that have been identified by existing instruments make it very difficult for teachers and administrators to absorb and translate them into practice. When I originally wrote ("Author" 1982), I was seeking to develop an argument that would be heuristic and open up a fertile path of scholarship. I now feel that this perspective is diminished when it is limited to classroom pedagogy, especially because there are a panorama of components related to schooling that contribute to a child's educational success and achievement. All are impacted upon by culture. There is a need for a Cultural Prism in developing strategies to work effectively with African American parents; design effective classroom management strategies; promote nurturing child behavior management; eliminate student push out from high school; intervene in child failure; understand distinctive patterns of performance in particular subject matter areas, on assessment measures and as mediated by gender.\par
Du Bois (1903) said that "The Negro is a sort of seventh son, born with a veil, and gifted with secondsight in this American world . . ." It is my position that the scholar/educator who is proficient in utilizing the Cultural Prism must be gifted with a Du Boisian firstsight, second-sight, third-sight, fourth-sight and fifthsight which are all necessary to decode the difficulties African American children are experiencing in school. The professional who utilizes this Cultural Prism must be proficient in each area and must be able to move seamlessly between each dimension. If a phenomenon is not explained by one dimension, the expert should be able to shift to the subsequent-sight for a salient hypothesis. The reason we are stuck where we are is that we have experts who can operate in only one dimension or the other and maintain that the answer is found in the only dimension they understand and have commerce with. This is the reason why we don't have the luxury of only having scholars collaborating with scholars of one discipline and practitioners working in isolation in school districts rejecting any meaningful collaboration with scholars. To construct this approach, we are going to have to create a dynamic partnership across disciplines and between scholars and practitioners. This broader concept of Cultural Prism requires:\par
1. First-sight: an understanding of African and African American history and culture as a context for behavior.\par
2. Second-sight: an understanding of the socioeconomic exigencies of African American life.\par
3. Third-sight: an understanding of African American child development, learning, cultural and behavioral styles.\par
4. Fourth-sight: an analysis of statistics related to achievement patterns of African American children. 
\section[{5.}]{5.}\par
Fifth-sight: an ability to identify discrepancies in educational practice that affect African American children which constitute malpractice. These discrepancies apply to instructional practices in addition to administrative decisions. a) Specifically First-sight: an understanding of African and African American history and culture as a context for behavior. While this dimension does not include race as a biological factor, it includes an understanding of racism. Any scholar who seeks to interpret the educational profile of African American children must be grounded in the history and culture of African and African American people. There can be no valid oppression-blind analysis applied to the situation of African American children. All of the ramifications of racism are included in this category.\par
Second-sight: an understanding of the socioeconomic exigencies of African American life.\par
This dimension incorporates social class considerations in interpreting the achievement patterns of African American children.\par
This dimension is essential because of the extent to which the largest numbers African American people have emerged from and been relegated to the lower social class in America. This dimension also encompasses the need to create the science to accurately assess social class as it relates to school achievement for African American families. This issue is discussed in more detail in Author (2016).\par
Alexander, Cook and McDill (1978) contended that tracking serves the interests of higher status parents who exploit such mechanisms to ensure their children's success. Higher status parents know how to manipulate the system to achieve their children's placement in gifted or honors tracks. They know the significance of these placements in obtaining admittance to the most prestigious colleges which result in their children entering networks that improve the chances that they will be recipients of prestigious and high paying jobs.\par
According to \hyperref[b0]{Alexander, Cook, and McDill (1978)} following are the detriments of tracking for children of lower socioeconomic status:\par
? Tracking channels scarce resources to those who have the least need for them.\par
? Students in non-college tracks are denied access to students, teachers, counselors, and information that would broaden their interests, challenge their abilities, and improve their performance.\par
? Non-college tracked students are discouraged from competing with those students who are initially more advantaged, and thus are not required or even encouraged to strive for academic excellence.\par
? Students in non -college tracks are looked down upon as being unintelligent. As a result, they fail to develop attitudes and insights concerning education and institutional functioning that would allow them to compete successfully with their more advantaged classmates for post-schooling resources and rewards. ? Non-college track students are shunted into curricula that will impede their prospects for success in college. If they persevere in their college aspirations, they will be relegated to junior and community colleges which will further diminish their expectations. ? Being in a college track increases the probability of applying to college and enhances one's prospects for being admitted. Thus, sorting processes within high schools may substantially affect the later attainment of children from lower or higher socioeconomic strata (pp. \hyperref[b50]{[47]}\hyperref[b51]{[48]}\hyperref[b52]{[49]}\hyperref[b53]{[50]} {\ref [51]}\hyperref[b54]{[52]}\hyperref[b55]{[53]}\hyperref[b56]{[54]}\hyperref[b57]{[55]}\hyperref[b59]{[56]}\hyperref[b60]{[57]}\hyperref[b61]{[58]} {\ref [59]}\hyperref[b63]{[60]}\hyperref[b64]{[61]}\hyperref[b66]{[62]}\hyperref[b67]{[63]}\hyperref[b68]{[64]}\hyperref[b69]{[65]}\hyperref[b71]{[66]}.\par
In addition to inequities within schools, there are the ever present socioeconomic inequities of school funding. Howard Horton (1994) pointed out that: U.S. education is primarily a state function, therefore each state has the obligation to see that all school districts are equally funded, that is, per pupil expenditure should be equal for all. Per pupil spending in Boston public schools should be comparable to that in the public schools of Brookline, Cambridge, Newton, or any other Massachusetts community. However, it appears that Massachusetts citizens and those of other states prefer to spend \$35,000 to \$50,000 per year to keep an African-American youth incarcerated than \$10,000 a year to educate that youth. (p. 267).\par
Another example drawn from this dimension is the discussion in ("Author" 2001:131 of the instructional accountability infrastructure that is derived from the volunteer activity of White mothers in affluent school districts. James Comer's (1999) school reform model acknowledged the manner in which excellence is delivered to White children through the volunteer leadership offered by White mothers. However, his solution of trying to import that same strategy to transform inner city schools didn't work. The point in understanding these educational discrepancies is not to employ a one size fits all solution. One size fits nobody. The point is to see an essential element for success that is present in one setting and missing in the other. The next step is to construct a strategy that is culturally appropriate in the African American setting that fulfills that function. These culturally appropriate strategies are what I describe in the Culturally Appropriate Pedagogy school reform model contained within that volume ("Author" 2001: 131).\par
The foundations that commissioned, funded, and ordained Dr. Comer's work, essentially want to wave a magic wand and "train" lower income African American mothers to function in their children's schools like White upper income mothers do, who are highly educated and supported economically by White husbands. No effort is made to provide the lower income African American mothers with the educational and economic assets that would transform their lives overall, enabling them to function comparably in that context. They just want to change the one thing --how they relate to the schools.\par
The pressures and exigencies of life at each social class level for Black mothers are delineated in detail elsewhere ("Author" 2001:135-136; Author, 2016). The gatekeepers in this society want to tinker around the edges instead of creating fundamental change.\par
The Comer Model is an example of identifying cultural discrepancies in educational settings, but not going far enough in creating a culturally appropriate solution to rectify the situation. This is not the fault of the Comer team. Their limitation is that they viewed the landscape overlooking the Second-sight. They took it as far as they could, with good intentions.\par
Third-sight: an understanding of African American child development, learning, behavioral and cultural styles. This sight involves a grounding in empirical research related to African American child development that is not included in mainstream texts. ("Author" 1982) was a stab at trying to pull together elements of African American child development that pertain to learning. A comprehensive volume on all aspects of African American child development is clearly called for. "How to teach Black children" manuals and "How to parent Black Children" books do not fulfill this category. It is difficult to achieve a grounding in African American child development from reading bits and pieces of empirical studies distributed over an infinite number of publications. There should also be course offerings in the academy that offer a comprehensive overview of African American child development and pedagogy.\par
Fourth-sight: an analysis of statistics related to achievement patterns of African American children. Every educational entity has data. These data are trotted out by everyone. However, there seems to be a limitation in the ability of school districts and advocacy organizations to apply a Cultural Prism to the interpretation of these data. When there is no culturally appropriate interpretation of the achievement data and patterns, there is no subsequent creation of remedies and interventions -only hand wringing.\par
A simple example of the ways in which school districts and other collectors of data can never create solutions is in the fact that they often report data by ethnic group and by gender but not by ethnic group by gender. That is, they can divide data between males and females in one data set. They can also give you a breakdown of achievement by grade level and by ethnic group. However, if you ask for data on Black males and Black females, the data is not available.\par
There is a chapter in my forthcoming book in which I delineate the work I did with a Texas school district in explaining why African American children's performance fell below that of Hispanic, white and Native American children during an intervention.\par
The school district did not have a data set that compared the performance of African American boys compared to African American girls. I pointed out to them that the differences in patterns by gender were extremely important in figuring out what was driving the variance between ethnic groups. My team thought deeply and came up with an entity outside of the school district that had the race by gender break down. Through swift work, they were able to have that data set dropped off at our work site for my review. I was able to show them that a whole new world opened up when we could break down the ethnic patterns by gender. Just the fact that this school district didnot even keep the data of ethnic group by gender blocks a significant path to interpretation and intervention.\par
The educational difficulties of African American children are well documented. There are advocacy groups who owe their entire existence to sounding the alarm over the statistics they collect and lament. However, because they do not have the Third-sight, the beat goes on. The statistics get worse and they collect more contributions for their organizations. However, nothing improves for African American children.\par
The work of Dr. Ivory \hyperref[b105]{Toldson (2008}\hyperref[b106]{Toldson ( , 2011) )} is an example of this dimension. Dr. When I served as a consultant with the aforementioned Texas school district to explain the lower performance of African American children, we reviewed the issue of poor performance on an assessment of eighth grade mathematics. I raised the question of which math courses each group had taken prior to taking the test. There was no repository for such data. At my suggestion, my team collected that information by creating a tally from school records. We found from our data collection that many of the White children who scored well on the test were taking Algebra II (had taken Algebra I and Geometry) and most were in classes on one of the three levels of courses above basic eighth grade math(Algebra I, Geometry or Algebra II). None of the African American children were enrolled in any course higher than basic eighth grade mathematics. These "data" reframed the question why the African American children were performing poorly (on the math proficiency test) to the question of where one needs to be in the sequence of mathematics classes to perform well on the test. It then becomes important to examine strategies for getting African American children on track to begin Algebra in at least the 8 th grade.\par
I always say that who takes Algebra and when they take it is the most political issue in education. I was once in Kansas City for a consulting assignment and spoke with an educator who pointed out to me that most of the fundamental mathematics concepts are imparted to children by the 3 rd grade. In 4 th and 5 th grade, the children just learn how to multiply and divide with 3, 4, 5, digits. In 5 th , 6 th , and 7 th grade math covers marginally significant concepts related to basic math. He said that this was originally placed in the curriculum because at the turn of the 20 th Century, most pupils were marking time until they could drop out of school in the 7 th grade and join the workforce. Algebra was reserved for the 8 th grade because it was a college preparatory course. So, there has historically been a divide between those who dropped out in the 7 th grade and those who took Algebra in preparation for college.\par
When my son was in an elite private elementary school (:Author" 2001) he was given the Iowa Test of Basic Skills in the 4 th and 5 th grades. On his 5 th grade test, he scored 1 grade above grade level in mathematics. On that basis, he was accelerated in math in such a way that he began Algebra I in the 8 th grade. However, his White male friends in the class scored higher, I was told, and were accelerated in such a way that they began Algebra I in the 7 th grade. This is how the acceleration works that results in White children moving through the mathematics sequence and having more courses under their belts when they take the 8 th grade mathematics test. This has nothing to do with African Heritage Theory of culture or even African American child development. This insight comes from being able to put on 3-Dimensional glasses and see through discrepancies in the collection of and interpretation of educational data that affects African American children. This is the Fourth-sense, a dimension that must be a part of the Cultural Prism.\par
Fifth-sight: an ability to identify discrepancies in educational practice that affects African American children. These discrepancies apply to instructional practices in addition to administrative decisions.\par
This dimension stems from identifying educational malpractice that is perpetrated against African American children. It is essential that educators are made aware of micro and macro expressions of such malpractice. In ("Author" 2001) I gave examples of micro malpractice in the episodes I reported in the treatment of my son in an elite private school. In my forthcoming book, I will present in detail a report I prepared as a consultant for a Texas school district that gives examples of the macro expressions of such malpractice in the treatment of African American children. In some cases, the malpractice is not intended --it is defacto, but malpractice, nonetheless.\par
Jere \hyperref[b14]{Brophy (1983)} described a protocol of interactive behaviors of teachers who, for whatever reasons have low expectations of their students. The research shows that teachers tend to:\par
? demand less from low-expectation students ("lows") than from high expectation students ("highs"). ? wait less time for lows to answer questions.\par
? give lows the answer or call on someone else rather than try to improve the lows' response through repeating the question, providing clues, or asking a new question. ? provide lows with inappropriate reinforcement by rewarding inappropriate behaviors or incorrect answers. ? criticize lows more often than highs for failure.\par
? praise lows less frequently then highs for success.\par
? fail to give feedback to lows' public responses.\par
? pay less attention to lows and interact with them less frequently. ? call on lows less often than highs to respond to questions. ? seat lows farther away from the teacher than highs.\par
? use more rapid pacing and less extended explanations or repetition of definitions and examples with highs than with lows. ? accept more low-quality or more incorrect responses from low-expectation students. ? attempt to improve more on poor responses from highs than from lows. ? interact with lows more privately than publicly.\par
? in administering or grading tests or assignments, give highs but not lows the benefit of the doubt in borderline cases. ? give briefer and less intuitive feedback to the questions of lows than to those of highs. ? use less intrusive instruction with highs than with lows, so that they have more opportunity to practice independently. ? when time is limited, use less effective and more time-consuming instructional methods with lows than with highs. Overall, \hyperref[b14]{Brophy (1983)} indicates the following in relation to differential treatment of ability groups and/or tracks: o that teachers are more demanding of and give longer reading assignments to their high groups.\par
Teachers interrupt low group students more quickly when they make a mistake in reading. Teachers are more likely to give the low group students the word or prompt them with graphic or phonetic cues rather than semantic or syntactic cues that are designed to help them intuit the word from its context; o that with low groups, teachers were observed to have been less clear about their objective, to make fewer attempts to relate the content of their courses to students' interests and backgrounds, to be less reasonable in their work standards, to be less consistent in their discipline, and to be less receptive to student input; o that high track classes have teachers who plan and implement more independent projects and tend to introduce more higher-level and integrative concepts. Low track teachers stress more structured assignments dealing with basic facts and skills;\par
o that high track classes are seen more as an academic challenge, so teachers plan them more thoroughly. Low track teachers, in contrast, are less well prepared and are much more likely to spend time correcting papers or allowing students to do activities of their own choosing rather than teaching academic content (pp. 631-61).\par
An article by Eva Chun (1988) identifies dimensions of educational practices that discriminate against African American children. Chun points out two themes that become intertwined in the areas of ability grouping and tracking that negatively affect children in the lower socio-economic strata. She identified two themes: 1. socioeconomic status bias in educational policies and 2. preference given to intellectually-advantaged students rather than to non-college track students. The focus of her analysis centered upon ability grouping and tracking in classrooms. She defined ability groups based upon alleged differences in ability. She also pointed out discrepancies in teacher expectations about the present and future academic potential of students. She documented the self-fulfilling prophecy which is the tendency for students to become what teachers expect them to be. Chun also reviewed the research that documents the effects of race and socioeconomic status on teacher expectations that contribute to the self-fulfilling prophecy effect. 
\section[{III.}]{III.} 
\section[{Conclusions}]{Conclusions}\par
It is my contention that we, who want to affect change for children have to think outside of the funding. Some of the organizations that receive corporate funding with boards dominated by persons from corporations have had their missions reduced to healthy snacks and jumping jacks. A central problem is that in the words of James C. Young, Professor at Clark Atlanta University, "Everybody can do education." Every single person alive feels that they have the solution to educational problems. Bill Gates, who dropped out of Harvard and created Microsoft feels that by virtue of his wealth, that he knows more about education than professional educators.\par
The recommendations for future research are implicit in the article. Numerous references are made to the learning styles of African American children in scholarly article \hyperref[b41]{(Durodoye, 1995;} {\ref Williams, 1998;}\hyperref[b9]{Berry, 2003;}\hyperref[b82]{Moody, 2004;}\hyperref[b86]{Parsons, 2005;}\hyperref[b18]{Cantrell, 2006;}\hyperref[b42]{Emeka, 2006;}\hyperref[b7]{Bailey, 2007;} {\ref Carter \& Hawkills, 2008;} {\ref Duskills, 2012)}. This article advocates that scholars take the time to strengthen the science that under girds scholarship on learning styles of African American children. Specifically, 1. Need for a precise definition of what constitutes the learning styles of African American children.\par
There is a need to reconcile the different terminologies that are describing the same thing; 2. Creation of instruments to measure such a construct instead of using instruments that are available but were not created for that purpose; 3. Need to resolve the imprecision in the measure of social class as related to achievement patterns of African American children; 4. Need to bring an interdisciplinary prism to designing interventions that emanate from achievement gap data. My belief is that everything we do should be directed toward fighting for educational excellence for African American children. Closing the achievement gap is only the first step. As V.P. Franklin (Hale, 2001, Foreword) has stated, our goal must be to prepare African American children for their leadership role among African peoples throughout the world in the twenty-first century. Educational mastery and\begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{}\includegraphics[]{image-2.png}
\caption{\label{fig_0}?}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.20665852168601098\textwidth}P{0.004673182651191203\textwidth}P{0.005711667684789248\textwidth}P{0.6033598045204643\textwidth}P{0.005192425167990226\textwidth}P{0.010384850335980453\textwidth}P{0.00986560781918143\textwidth}P{0.004153940134392181\textwidth}}
\multicolumn{4}{l}{10. Provide all children with high quality early childhood}\\
education\tabcellsep (American\tabcellsep Educational\tabcellsep Research\\
\multicolumn{4}{l}{Association, 2005; Calman \& TarrWhelan, 2005;}\\
\multicolumn{4}{l}{Frede, 1995; Haskins, 2006; King, 2006; Kiep, 1007;}\\
\multicolumn{4}{l}{Knudsen, Heckman, Cameron \& Shonkoff, 2006;}\\
\multicolumn{4}{l}{Lynch, 2007; Magnuson, Myers, Ruhm \& Waldfogel,}\\
\multicolumn{4}{l}{2004; Magnuson \& Waldfogel, 2005; Ramey \&}\\
\multicolumn{4}{l}{Ramey, 2004; Rolnick \& Grunewald, 2007; Winter \&}\\
\multicolumn{4}{l}{Kelley, 2008; Wong, Cook, Barnett, \& Jung, 2008)}\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Sanders \& Rivers, 1996)}\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{3. Establish equitable and appropriate grouping}\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{practices at the elementary level (Kulik, 1993; Slavin,}\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{1987, Slavin, 1988)}\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{4. Ensure equitable representation across high school}\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{curriculum tracks(Finn, 1998; Finn, Fox, McClellan,}\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Achilles \& Boyd-Zaharias, 2006)}\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{5. Promote culturally appropriate pedagogical and}\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{discipline practice ("Author", 1982, 1986, 1994,}\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{2001; Boykin and Miller, 1997; Delpit, 2006; Kunjufu,}\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{2002; Skiba, Michael, Nardon \& Peterson, 2002.}\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{6. Encourage high teacher expectations of student}\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{achievement (Diamond, Randolph, \& Spillane, 2004,}\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Ferguson, 2002; Fredriksen \& Rhodes, 2004)}\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{7. Maintain both school and student accountability}\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{measure (Betts and Grogger, 2003; Driscoll,}\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Halcoussis, and Svomy, 2008; Figlio \& Lucas, 2004;}\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Ladd \& Walsh, 2002; Reback, 2008; Springer, 2008)}\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep 8. Adopt\tabcellsep supportive\tabcellsep programming,\tabcellsep including\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{comprehensive}\tabcellsep reforms,\tabcellsep individual\tabcellsep tutoring\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{programs (Alexander, Entwisle, and Olson, 2001;}\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Borman, Hewes, Overman \& Brown, 2003; Hock,}\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Pulvers, Deshler \& Schumaker, 2001; Lauer, et. al.,}\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{2006; Wasik \& Slavin, 1993)}\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{9. Enforce desegregation of schools and programs}\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{(Clotfelter, Vigdor, \& Ladd, 2006; Greenwald,}\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Hedges \& Laine, 1996; Lee, 2004; Orfield \& Yun,}\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep 1999)\end{longtable} \par
  {\small\itshape [Note: students(Sanders \& Rivers, 1996; Wright, Horn, \& Sanders, 1997) 2. Maintain small class sizes in the early years(Finn, Fox, McClellan, Achilles \& BoydZaharias, 2006;]} 
\caption{\label{tab_0}}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.7583778014941303\textwidth}P{0.09162219850586979\textwidth}}
\tabcellsep Health Behavior in School-age\\
\multicolumn{2}{l}{Children (HBSC: N=1225), National Crime Victimization}\\
Survey:\tabcellsep School Crime Supplement (NCVS-SCS:\\
\multicolumn{2}{l}{N=849), National Survey of American's Families (NSAF:}\\
\multicolumn{2}{l}{N=2497) and National Survey on Drug Use and Health}\\
\multicolumn{2}{l}{(NSDUH: N-1208).}\\
\tabcellsep The Executive Summary reports that the\\
\multicolumn{2}{l}{research adheres to the standards for Scientifically-}\\
\multicolumn{2}{l}{based Research, which are mandatory for application to}\\
\multicolumn{2}{l}{federal educational policy and academic instruction.}\\
\multicolumn{2}{l}{This research:}\\
\multicolumn{2}{l}{1. applies systematic and objective procedures;}\\
\multicolumn{2}{l}{2. uses empirical and experimental methods;}\\
\multicolumn{2}{l}{3. involves robust data analyses that have the}\\
\multicolumn{2}{l}{statistical power to test hypotheses and justify}\\
\multicolumn{2}{l}{conclusions;}\\
\multicolumn{2}{l}{4. uses valid data and corroborates findings across}\\
\multicolumn{2}{l}{multiple measurements, and}\\
\multicolumn{2}{l}{5. has been subject to peer review by independent}\\
\multicolumn{2}{l}{experts. The findings will assist policymakers,}\\
\multicolumn{2}{l}{educators, school advocates and families to plot the}\\
\multicolumn{2}{l}{path to academic success for school-age African-}\\
\multicolumn{2}{l}{American males.}\end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_1}}\end{figure}
 			\footnote{© 2016 Global Journals Inc. (US)} 		 		\backmatter  			 
\subsection[{Year 2016}]{Year 2016}\par
Creation of a Cultural Prism: The Key to Excellence for African American Children grouping as the sorting of students into instructional excellence are the first steps toward that end. 
\subsection[{Volume XVI Issue VII Version I}]{Volume XVI Issue VII Version I}			 			  				\begin{bibitemlist}{1}
\bibitem[Anthropologist71]{b25}\label{b25} 	 		\textit{},  		 			American Anthropologist71 		.  		p. .  	 
\bibitem[Scarborough]{b40}\label{b40} 	 		\textit{},  		 			Scarborough 		.  		p. .  	 
\bibitem[Lanham]{b58}\label{b58} 	 		\textit{},  		 			M D Lanham 		.  		Bowman \& Littlefield Publishers, Inc.  	 
\bibitem[Cambridge]{b70}\label{b70} 	 		\textit{},  		 			M A Cambridge 		.  		Harvard University Press.  	 
\bibitem[Springfield et al.]{b96}\label{b96} 	 		\textit{},  		 			Springfield 		,  		 			C Il: Charles 		,  		 			Thomas 		.  		 	 
\bibitem[Alexander et al. ()]{b0}\label{b0} 	 		\textit{},  		 			K Alexander 		,  		 			Cook 		,  		 			E Mcdill 		.  		1978.  	 
\bibitem[Slade ()]{b94}\label{b94} 	 		\textit{},  		 			B Slade 		.  		1997.  	 
\bibitem[Bell ()]{b8}\label{b8} 	 		‘A culturally sensitive analysis of Black learning style’.  		 			Y R Bell 		.  	 	 		\textit{Journal of Black Psychology}  		1994. 20  (47)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Slavin ()]{b98}\label{b98} 	 		‘Ability grouping and student achievement in elementary schools: A bestevidence synthesis’.  		 			R Slavin 		.  	 	 		\textit{Review of Educational Research}  		1987. 57  (3)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Shade]{b95}\label{b95} 	 		‘African American cognitive patterns: A review of the research’.  	 	 		\textit{Culture, style and the educative process: Making schools work for racially diverse students},  				 			B J Shade 		 (ed.)  		 	 
\bibitem[Bonner (2000)]{b11}\label{b11} 	 		‘African American giftedness: Our nation's deferred dream in’.  		 			Fred A Bonner 		.  	 	 		\textit{Journal of Black Studies}  		2000. May. 30  (5)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Conley, D. & Albright, K. (ed.) ()]{b28}\label{b28} 	 		\textit{After the educational success},  		Conley, D. \& Albright, K. (ed.)  		2012. London, New York: Routledge Advances in Sociology.  	 
\bibitem[Kulik ()]{b72}\label{b72} 	 		\textit{An analysis of the research on ability grouping. National Resource Center on The Gifted and Talented Newsletter},  		 			J Kulik 		.  		1995. p. .  	 
\bibitem[Wong et al. ()]{b109}\label{b109} 	 		‘An effectiveness-based evaluation of five state prekindergarten programs’.  		 			V Wong 		,  		 			T Cook 		,  		 			W Barnett 		,  		 			J Jung 		.  	 	 		\textit{Journal of Policy Analysis and Management}  		2008. 27  (1)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Duncan and Magnuson ()]{b38}\label{b38} 	 		\textit{an family socioeconomic resources account for racial and ethnic test score gaps? The Future of Children},  		 			G Duncan 		,  		 			K Magnuson 		.  		2004. 15 p. .  	 
\bibitem[Author ()]{b54}\label{b54} 	 		\textit{Author},  		1986.  	 
\bibitem[Author ()]{b55}\label{b55} 	 		\textit{Author},  		2001.  	 
\bibitem[Author ()]{b56}\label{b56} 	 		\textit{Author},  		2016.  	 
\bibitem[Taylor ()]{b103}\label{b103} 	 		‘Author" Director's Corner Column, African American Learners’.  		 			Erika Taylor 		.  		 \url{http://africana-children-isaac.org/research/journal/archives/133/v1i2directors.php}  	 	 		\textit{Journal of ISAAC}  		2013.  	 
\bibitem[Ogbu ()]{b83}\label{b83} 	 		\textit{Black American students in an affluent suburb: A study of academic disengagement},  		 			J Ogbu 		.  		2003. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.  	 
\bibitem[Fordham and Ogbu ()]{b49}\label{b49} 	 		‘Black students' school successes: Coping with the burden of acting white’.  		 			S Fordham 		,  		 			J Ogbu 		.  	 	 		\textit{The Urban Review}  		1986. 18  (3)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Kunjufu ()]{b73}\label{b73} 	 		‘Black students: Middle class teachers’.  		 			J Kunjufu 		.  	 	 		\textit{Chicago. African American Images}  		2002.  	 
\bibitem[Toldson ()]{b106}\label{b106} 	 		\textit{Breaking Barriers: Plotting the Path Away from Juvenile Detention and toward Academic Success for School-age African-American Males},  		 			I Toldson 		.  		2011. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Black Caucus Foundation, Inc.  	 
\bibitem[Toldson ()]{b105}\label{b105} 	 		\textit{Breaking Barriers: Plotting the Path to Academic Success for School-age African-American Males},  		 			I Toldson 		.  		2008. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Black Caucus Foundation, Inc.  	 
\bibitem[Khadaroo (2010)]{b67}\label{b67} 	 		‘Busing to end in Wake County, N.C. Goodbye, school diversity?’.  		 			S Khadaroo 		.  		 \url{http:www.csmonitor.com/USA/Education/2010/0374/Busing-to-end-inWake-County-NC-Goodbye-school-diversity?cmpid=adddthis\textunderscore email\#.T0KoSrGoskc.e-mail}  	 	 		\textit{The Christian Science Monitor},  				2010. March 24.  	 
\bibitem[Brown (1986)]{b15}\label{b15} 	 		‘Calculus by the dozen: A retention program for undergraduates’.  		 			M Brown 		.  	 	 		\textit{Conference on Black Student Retention},  				 (Atlanta, Georgia)  		1986. November.  	 
\bibitem[Central Regional Educational Laboratory. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 474390)]{b44}\label{b44} 	 		\textit{Central Regional Educational Laboratory. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 474390)},  				 (Oak Brook, IL)  		 	 
\bibitem[King (2006)]{b68}\label{b68} 	 		‘Closing the achievement gap through expanded access to quality early education in grades PK-3’.  		 			J King 		.  		 \url{http://www.newamerica.net/files/Closing\%20the\%20Achievement\%Gap.pdf}  	 	 		\textit{The New American Foundation. Retrieved},  				 (Washington, DC)  		2006. October 27. 2006.  	 
\bibitem[Anderson ()]{b4}\label{b4} 	 		‘Cognitive styles and multicultural populations’.  		 			J A Anderson 		.  	 	 		\textit{Journal of Teacher Education}  		1988. 29 p. .  	 
\bibitem[Borman et al. ()]{b12}\label{b12} 	 		‘Comprehensive school reform and achievement: A meta-analysis’.  		 			G Borman 		,  		 			G Hewes 		,  		 			L Overman 		,  		 			S Brown 		.  	 	 		\textit{Review of Educational Research}  		2003. 73  (2)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Cohen ()]{b24}\label{b24} 	 		\textit{Conceptual styles, culture conflict and nonverbal tests of intelligence},  		 			R Cohen 		.  		1969.  	 
\bibitem[Comer and Maholmes ()]{b26}\label{b26} 	 		‘Creating schools of child development and education In the USA: Teacher preparation for urban schools’.  		 			J Comer 		,  		 			V Maholmes 		.  	 	 		\textit{Journal of Education for Teaching}  		1999.  	 
\bibitem[Hunt ()]{b63}\label{b63} 	 		\textit{Cultural perspectives and thinking: The African American thinker in the classroom. ERIC document},  		 			S Hunt 		.  		1993. 368 p. 17.  	 
\bibitem[Duskins ()]{b39}\label{b39} 	 		‘Culture and learning style: A perspective on African American school Children's written literacies’.  		 			G Duskins 		.  	 	 		\textit{Proceedings from National Association of African American Studies},  				 (from National Association of African American Studies)  		2012.  	 
\bibitem[Sanders and Rivers ()]{b91}\label{b91} 	 		\textit{Cumulative and residual effects of teachers on future student academic achievement},  		 			W Sanders 		,  		 			J Rivers 		.  		1996. Knoxville, TN.  		 			University of Tennessee Value-Added Research and Assessment Center 		 	 	 (Research Progress Report) 
\bibitem[Curriculum, tracking and educational stratification: Some further evidence]{b1}\label{b1} 	 		\textit{Curriculum, tracking and educational stratification: Some further evidence},  		American Sociological Review43. p. .  	 
\bibitem[Clarke ()]{b21}\label{b21} 	 		\textit{Dark Ghetto: Dilemma of Social Power},  		 			K Clarke 		.  		1965. New York: Harper and Row.  	 
\bibitem[Arya and Mishra ()]{b6}\label{b6} 	 		‘Development of field dependent-field independent cognitive style and other cognitive functions in school children’.  		 			Y Arya 		,  		 			R Mishra 		.  	 	 		\textit{Social Science International}  		2012. 28  (2)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Figlio and Lucas ()]{b46}\label{b46} 	 		‘Do high grading standards affect student performance’.  		 			D Figlio 		,  		 			M Lucas 		.  	 	 		\textit{Journal of Public Economics}  		2004. 88 p. .  	 
\bibitem[Phillips et al. ()]{b87}\label{b87} 	 		‘Does the black-white test score gap widen after children enter school’.  		 			M Phillips 		,  		 			J Crouse 		,  		 			J Ralph 		.  	 	 		\textit{the blackwhite test score gap},  				 			C Jencks,  			\& M Phillips 		 (ed.)  		 (Washington, D.C: Brookings)  		1998. p. .  	 
\bibitem[Magnuson and Waldfogel ()]{b80}\label{b80} 	 		‘Early childhood care and education: Effects on ethnic and racial gaps in school readiness’.  		 			D Magnuson 		,  		 			J Waldfogel 		.  	 	 		\textit{Future of Children}  		2005. 15  (1)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Calman and Tarr-Whelan (2005)]{b17}\label{b17} 	 		\textit{Early childhood education for all: A wise Investment. Recommendations from the Legal Momentum's Family Initiative and the MIT Workplace Center conference},  		 			L Calman 		,  		 			L Tarr-Whelan 		.  		 \url{http://web.mit.edu/workplacecenter/docs/Full\%20Report.pdf}  		2005. April. October 12. 2006.  	 
\bibitem[Early childhood education: Investing in quality makes sense Research Points (2005)]{b3}\label{b3} 	 		‘Early childhood education: Investing in quality makes sense’.  		 \url{http://www.aera.net/uploa-dedFiles/Journals\textunderscore and\textunderscore Publications/Research\textunderscore Points/RPFall05.pdf}  	 	 		\textit{Research Points}  		2005. October 19, 2006. American Educational Research Association. 3  (2)  p. .  	 	 (Fall)) 
\bibitem[Ramey and Ramey ()]{b88}\label{b88} 	 		‘Early learning and school readiness: Can early intervention make a difference?’.  		 			C Ramey 		,  		 			S Ramey 		.  	 	 		\textit{Merrill-Palmer Quarterly}  		2004. 50  (4)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Knudsen et al. (2006)]{b71}\label{b71} 	 		‘Economic, neurobiological and behavioral perspectives on building America's future workforce’.  		 			E Knudsen 		,  		 			J Heckman 		,  		 			J Cameron 		,  		 			J Shonkoff 		.  		 \url{From233http://www.pnaas.org/content/103/27/10155.full.pdf+htm?sid=4b35c6e7-020d-4dab9b91-f920a4005cab}  	 	 		\textit{Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences}  		2006. November 15. 2008. 103  (27)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Delpit ()]{b32}\label{b32} 	 		‘Education in a multicultural society: Our future's greatest challenge’.  		 			L Delpit 		.  	 	 		\textit{Journal of Negro Education}  		1992. 61 p. .  	 
\bibitem[Thompson and O'quinn ()]{b104}\label{b104} 	 		\textit{Eliminating the Black-White Achievement Gap: A Summary of Research},  		 			C Thompson 		,  		 			S O'quinn 		.  		2001. North Carolina Education Research Council.  	 
\bibitem[England Journal of Public Policy v10 n1 p259-69 Sum-Fall]{b62}\label{b62} 	 		\textit{England Journal of Public Policy v10 n1 p259-69 Sum-Fall},  				 	 
\bibitem[Lynch (200)]{b78}\label{b78} 	 		\textit{Enriching children, Enriching the Nation: Public investment in high quality Prekindergarten},  		 			R Lynch 		.  		200. Washington: Economic Policy Institute.  	 
\bibitem[Angeli ()]{b5}\label{b5} 	 		‘Examining the effects of field dependence-independence on learner's problemsolving performance and interaction with a computer modeling tool: Implications for the design of joint cognitive systems’.  		 			C Angeli 		.  	 	 		\textit{Computers \& Education}  		2013. p. .  	 
\bibitem[Clodfelter et al. ()]{b22}\label{b22} 	 		‘Federal oversight, local control, and the spector of "resegregation" in southern schools’.  		 			C Clodfelter 		,  		 			J Vigdor 		,  		 			H Ladd 		.  	 	 		\textit{American Law and Economics Review}  		2006. 8  (2)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Winter and Kelley ()]{b108}\label{b108} 	 		\textit{Forty years of school readiness research: What have we Learned? Childhood Education},  		 			S Winter 		,  		 			M Kelley 		.  		2008. 84 p. .  	 
\bibitem[Drisoll et al. ()]{b37}\label{b37} 	 		‘Gains in standardized test scores: Evidence of diminishing returns in achievement’.  		 			D Drisoll 		,  		 			D Halcoussis 		,  		 			S \&svorny 		.  	 	 		\textit{Economics of Education Review}  		2008. 27 p. .  	 
\bibitem[Ladd and Walsh ()]{b74}\label{b74} 	 		‘Implementing valueadded measures of school effectiveness: Getting the incentives right’.  		 			H Ladd 		,  		 			R Walsh 		.  	 	 		\textit{Economics of Education Review}  		2002. 21 p. .  	 
\bibitem[Boykin and Miller ()]{b13}\label{b13} 	 		‘In Search of Cultural Themes and Their Expression in the Dynamics of Classroom Life’.  		 			A Boykin 		,  		 			O Miller 		.  	 	 		\textit{Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association},  				 (March, Chicago)  		1997.  	 
\bibitem[Magnuson et al. (20004)]{b79}\label{b79} 	 		‘Inequality in preschool Education and school readiness’.  		 			K Magnuson 		,  		 			M Myers 		,  		 			C Ruhm 		,  		 			J Waldfogel 		.  	 	 		\textit{American Educational Research Journal}  		20004. 41  (1)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Lee ()]{b77}\label{b77} 	 		\textit{Is resegregation real? Cambridge, MA: Civil Rights Project},  		 			C Lee 		.  		2004. Harvard University.  	 
\bibitem[Fierro ()]{b45}\label{b45} 	 		‘Is there a difference in learning style among cultures’.  		 			D Fierro 		.  	 	 		\textit{ERIC document ED}  		1997. 415 p. 974.  	 
\bibitem[Ladson-Billings ()]{b75}\label{b75} 	 		‘It doesn't add up: African American students' mathematics achievement’.  		 			G Ladson-Billings 		.  	 	 		\textit{Journal for Research in Mathematics Education}  		1997. 28  (6)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Joseph (1987)]{b66}\label{b66} 	 		 			G Joseph 		.  		\textit{Foundations of Eurocentrism in mathematics in Race and Class},  				1987. March. 37 p. .  	 
\bibitem[Kirp ()]{b69}\label{b69} 	 		 			D Kirp 		.  		\textit{The Sandbox Investment: The Preschool Movement and Kids First Politics},  				2007.  	 
\bibitem[Cantrell ()]{b18}\label{b18} 	 		\textit{Learning style characteristics and learning activity preferences of African-American adult learners in rehabilitation counseling master of science Programs. 3256989 University of Northern Colorado},  		 			C Cantrell 		.  		2006. Ann Arbor: ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.  	 
\bibitem[Burke and Dunn ()]{b16}\label{b16} 	 		\textit{Learning style-based teaching to raise minority student test scores: There's no debate! Clearing House},  		 			K Burke 		,  		 			R Dunn 		.  		2002. 76 p. .  	 
\bibitem[Durodoye ()]{b41}\label{b41} 	 		\textit{Learning styles and the African American student},  		 			B Durodoye 		.  		1995. 116 p. .  	 
\bibitem[Mccarthy and Lieberman ()]{b81}\label{b81} 	 		‘Learning Styles Dialogue’.  		 			B Mccarthy 		,  		 			M Lieberman 		.  	 	 		\textit{Report of the Board of Regents Panel on Learning Styles ERIC document ED348407},  				1988.  	 
\bibitem[Corballis ()]{b29}\label{b29} 	 		‘Left brain, right brain: Facts and fantasies’.  		 			M Corballis 		.  	 	 		\textit{Plos Biology}  		2014. 12  (1)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Scull ()]{b92}\label{b92} 	 		‘Left brain, right brain: One brain, two brains’.  		 			A Scull 		.  		 \xref{http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/brain/awq255}{10.1093/brain/awq255}.  	 	 		\textit{Brain: A Journal of Neurology}  		2010. 133  (10)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Culp et al. ()]{b30}\label{b30} 	 		‘Maternal parenting characteristics and School involvement: Predictors of kindergarten cognitive competence among Head Start Children’.  		 			A Culp 		,  		 			L Hubbs-Tait 		,  		 			E Culp 		,  		 			H Starost 		.  	 	 		\textit{Journal of Research in Childhood Education}  		2000. 15  (1)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Berry (2003)]{b9}\label{b9} 	 		‘Mathematics standards, cultural styles and learning preferences: The plight and promise of African American students’.  		 			R Berry 		.  		 DOL: 10.10 80/00098650309602013.  	 	 		\textit{Clearing House}  		2003. May/June. 78  (5)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Emeka ()]{b42}\label{b42} 	 		\textit{No Child Left Behind? An Analysis of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 and the relevance of cultural frameworks in its implication for underachieving African American students},  		 			V Emeka 		.  		2006. Chicago. Ann Arbor.  		 			3212960 Loyola University 		 	 	 (ProQuest Dissertations \& Thesis) 
\bibitem[Diller ()]{b36}\label{b36} 	 		\textit{Opening the dialogue: Using culture as a tool in teaching young African American children in The Reading Teacher},  		 			D Diller 		.  		1999. 52 p. .  	 
\bibitem[Delpit ()]{b33}\label{b33} 	 		\textit{Other people's children: Cultural conflict in the classroom},  		 			L Delpit 		.  		2006. New York: The New Press.  	 
\bibitem[Lauer et al. ()]{b76}\label{b76} 	 		‘Out-of-schooltime programs. A meta-analysis of effects for at-risk students’.  		 			P Lauer 		,  		 			M Akiba 		,  		 			S Wilkerson 		,  		 			H Apthorp 		,  		 			D Snow 		,  		 			M Martin-Glenn 		.  	 	 		\textit{Review of Educational Research}  		2006. 76  (2)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Hill et al. ()]{b60}\label{b60} 	 		‘parent academic involvement as related to school behavior, achievement, and aspirations: Demographic variations across adolescence’.  		 			N Hill 		,  		 			D Casellino 		,  		 			J Lansford 		,  		 			P Nowlin 		,  		 			K Dodge 		,  		 			J Bates 		,  		 			G Petit 		.  	 	 		\textit{Child Development}  		2004. 75  (5)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Phillips]{b102}\label{b102} 	 		 			Phillips 		.  		\textit{The Black-white test score gap},  				p. .  	 
\bibitem[Wasik and Slavin ()]{b107}\label{b107} 	 		‘Preventing early reading failure with one-to-one tutoring: A review of five programs’.  		 			B Wasik 		,  		 			R Slavin 		.  	 	 		\textit{Reading Research Quarterly}  		1993. 28  (2)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Haskins ()]{b57}\label{b57} 	 		‘Putting education into preschools’.  		 			R Haskins 		.  	 	 		\textit{Generational change: Closing the test score gap},  				 			P E Peterson 		 (ed.)  		2006. p. .  	 
\bibitem[Brophy (1983)]{b14}\label{b14} 	 		‘Research on the selffulfilling prophecy and teacher expectations in’.  		 			Jere E Brophy 		.  	 	 		\textit{Journal of the American Psychological Association}  		1983. Oct, 1983. 75  (5)  p. .  	 	 (Journal of Educational Psychology) 
\bibitem[Orfield and Yun (1999)]{b84}\label{b84} 	 		\textit{Resegregation in American schools},  		 			G Orfield 		,  		 			J Yun 		.  		 \url{http://www.civilrightsproject.ucla.edu/research/deseg/Resegregation\textunderscore American\textunderscore Schools99.pdf}  		1999. November 20. 2008. Cambridge, MA.  		 			Civil Rights Project, Harvard University. 		 	 
\bibitem[Alexander et al. ()]{b2}\label{b2} 	 		‘Schools, achievement, and inequality: A seasonal perspective’.  		 			K L Alexander 		,  		 			D R Entwisle 		,  		 			L S Olson 		.  	 	 		\textit{Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis}  		2001. 23  (2)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Finn et al. (2006)]{b48}\label{b48} 	 		‘Small 229 classes in the early grades and course taking in high school’.  		 			J Finn 		,  		 			J Fox 		,  		 			M Mcclellan 		,  		 			C Achilles 		,  		 			J Boyd-Zaharius 		.  	 	 		\textit{International Journal of Education Policy and Leadership}  		2006. November 17. 2008.  (1)  p. 1.  	 
\bibitem[Fouts et al. (2007)]{b50}\label{b50} 	 		‘Social experiences and daily routines of African American infants in different socioeconomic contexts’.  		 			H Fouts 		,  		 			J Roopnarine 		,  		 			M Lamb 		.  	 	 		\textit{Journal of Family Psychology}  		2007. December, 21.  (4)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Moody (2004)]{b82}\label{b82} 	 		‘Sociocultural orientations and the mathematical success of African American students’.  		 			V Moody 		.  	 	 		\textit{Journal of Educational Research}  		2004. January/February. 97  (3)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Chunn ()]{b20}\label{b20} 	 		\textit{Sorting Black Students for success and failure: The inequality of ability grouping and tracking. Urban League Review},  		 			E Chunn 		.  		 \url{http://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ377102}  		1988. 1987-88. 11.  	 	 (number 1-2; pages 93-106; Summer-Winter) 
\bibitem[Steele and Aronson ()]{b101}\label{b101} 	 		‘Stereotype threat and the test performance of academically successful African Americans’.  		 			C Steele 		,  		 			J Aronson 		.  	 	 		\textit{C. Jencks \& M},  				1988.  	 
\bibitem[Slavin (1988)]{b99}\label{b99} 	 		‘Synthesis of research on grouping I elementary and secondary schools’.  		 			R Slavin 		.  	 	 		\textit{Educational Leadership}  		1988. September. p. .  	 
\bibitem[Finn ()]{b47}\label{b47} 	 		‘Taking foreigh languages in high school’.  		 			J Finn 		.  	 	 		\textit{Foreign Language Annals}  		1998. 31 p. .  	 
\bibitem[Diamond et al. ()]{b35}\label{b35} 	 		‘Teacher's expectations and sense of responsibility for student learning: The importance of race, class and organizational habitus’.  		 			J Diamond 		,  		 			A Randolph 		,  		 			J Spillane 		.  	 	 		\textit{Anthropology and Education Quarterly}  		2004. 35  (1)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Reback ()]{b89}\label{b89} 	 		‘Teaching to the rating: School accountability and the distribution of student achievement’.  		 			R Reback 		.  	 	 		\textit{Journal of Public Economics}  		2008. 92.  	 	 (ERIC Resources in Education. ED348407.) 
\bibitem[Hernstein and Murray ()]{b59}\label{b59} 	 		\textit{The bell curve: Intelligence and class structure in American life},  		 			R Hernstein 		,  		 			C Murray 		.  		1994. New York: Free Press.  	 
\bibitem[Parsons (2005)]{b86}\label{b86} 	 		‘The Black cultural ethos: Students' instructional context preferences, and student achievement: An examination of culturally congruent science instruction in the eighth grade classes of one African American and one Euro-American teacher’.  		 			E Parsons 		.  	 	 		\textit{Negro Educational Review}  		2005. July. 56  (2/3)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Page and Witty ()]{b85}\label{b85} 	 		\textit{The Black-White Achievement Gap: Why closing it is the greatest civil rights issue of our time},  		 			R Page 		,  		 			E Witty 		.  		2010. New York; NY: American Management Association.  	 
\bibitem[Phillips]{b65}\label{b65} 	 		\textit{The black-white test score gap},  		 			Phillips 		.  		Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press. p. .  	 
\bibitem[Jencks and Phillips ()]{b64}\label{b64} 	 		‘The black-white test score gap: An introduction’.  		 			C Jencks 		,  		 			M Phillips 		.  	 	 		\textit{C. Jencks \& M},  				1998.  	 
\bibitem[Skiba et al. ()]{b97}\label{b97} 	 		‘The color of discipline: Sources of racial and gender disproportionality in school punishment’.  		 			R Skiba 		,  		 			R Michael 		,  		 			A Nardo 		,  		 			R Peterson 		.  	 	 		\textit{The Urban Review}  		2002. 34  (4)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Bailey ()]{b7}\label{b7} 	 		\textit{The development of cultural congruence in relation to African American student achievement. 3268130 Temple University},  		 			L Bailey 		.  		2007. Ann Arbor: ProQuest Dissertations \& Theses.  	 
\bibitem[Rolnick and Grunewald ()]{b90}\label{b90} 	 		‘The economics of early childhood development as seen by two Fed economists’.  		 			A Rolnick 		,  		 			R Grunewald 		.  	 	 		\textit{Community Investments}  		2007. 19  (2)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Greenwald et al. ()]{b53}\label{b53} 	 		‘The effect of school resources on student achievement’.  		 			R Greenwald 		,  		 			L Hedges 		,  		 			R Laine 		.  	 	 		\textit{Review of Educational Research}  		1996. 1982. 66  (3)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Hock et al. ()]{b61}\label{b61} 	 		‘The effects of an afterschool tutoring program on the academic performance of at-risk students and students with LD’.  		 			M F Hock 		,  		 			K A Pulvers 		,  		 			D D Deshler 		,  		 			J B Schumaker 		.  	 	 		\textit{Remedial and Special Education}  		2001. 22  (3)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Betts and Grogger ()]{b10}\label{b10} 	 		‘The impact of grading standards on student achievement, educational attainment, and entry-level earnings’.  		 			J Betts 		,  		 			J Grogger 		.  	 	 		\textit{Economics of Education Review}  		2003. 22 p. .  	 
\bibitem[Springer (200)]{b100}\label{b100} 	 		‘The influence of an NCLB accountability plan on the distribution of Student test score gains’.  		 			M Springer 		.  	 	 		\textit{Economics of Education Review}  		200. 27 p. 563.  	 
\bibitem[Searson and Dunn ()]{b93}\label{b93} 	 		‘The learning-style teaching model’.  		 			R Searson 		,  		 			R Dunn 		.  	 	 		\textit{Science \& Children}  		2001. 38  (5)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Conley ()]{b27}\label{b27} 	 		\textit{The Pecking Order: Which siblings succeed and why},  		 			D Conley 		.  		2004. N.Y..  	 	 (Random House) 
\bibitem[Carter ()]{b19}\label{b19} 	 		‘The relationship between verve and the academic achievement of African American students in reading and mathematics in an urban middle school’.  		 			N Carter 		.  	 	 		\textit{Education Foundations}  		2008. 22  (2)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Frede ()]{b51}\label{b51} 	 		‘The role of program quality in producing early childhood program benefits’.  		 			E Frede 		.  	 	 		\textit{The Future of Children}  		1995. 5  (3)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Fredriksen and Rhodes ()]{b52}\label{b52} 	 		‘The role of teacher relationships in the lives of students’.  		 			K Fredriksen 		,  		 			J Rhodes 		.  	 	 		\textit{New Directions for Youth Development}  		2004. 103 p. .  	 
\bibitem[Delpit ()]{b31}\label{b31} 	 		\textit{The silenced dialogue: Power and pedagogy in educating other people's children in Harvard Education Review},  		 			L Delpit 		.  		1988. 58 p. .  	 
\bibitem[Dubois ()]{b34}\label{b34} 	 		\textit{The Souls of Black Folk. Originally written 1903},  		 			W E B Dubois 		.  		1997. Greenwich, Conn: Fawcett Publications.  	 
\bibitem[Ferguson ()]{b43}\label{b43} 	 		\textit{Understanding and addressing racial disparities in high achieving suburban schools},  		 			R Ferguson 		.  		 UD 035 541.  		2002.  	 	 (Report) 	 (What doesn't meet the eye) 
\bibitem[Coggins and Campbell ()]{b23}\label{b23} 	 		‘Using cultural competence to close the achievement Gap’.  		 			P Coggins 		,  		 			S Campbell 		.  	 	 		\textit{The Journal of Pan African Studies}  		2008. 2  (4)  p. .  	 
\end{bibitemlist}
 			 		 	 
\end{document}
