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\def\makelabel##1{\upshape ##1}}% } {\end{list}\end{raggedright}} \newenvironment{specHead}[2]% {\vspace{20pt}\hrule\vspace{10pt}% \phantomsection\label{#1}\markright{#2}% \pdfbookmark[2]{#2}{#1}% \hspace{-0.75in}{\bfseries\fontsize{16pt}{18pt}\selectfont#2}% }{} \def\TheFullDate{2016-01-15 (revised: 15 January 2016)} \def\TheID{\makeatother } \def\TheDate{2016-01-15} \title{Investigating the Most and the Least used Vocabulary Learning Strategies among Saudi Undergraduate Learners} \author{}\makeatletter \makeatletter \newcommand*{\cleartoleftpage}{% \clearpage \if@twoside \ifodd\c@page \hbox{}\newpage \if@twocolumn \hbox{}\newpage \fi \fi \fi } \makeatother \makeatletter \thispagestyle{empty} \markright{\@title}\markboth{\@title}{\@author} \renewcommand\small{\@setfontsize\small{9pt}{11pt}\abovedisplayskip 8.5\p@ plus3\p@ minus4\p@ \belowdisplayskip \abovedisplayskip \abovedisplayshortskip \z@ plus2\p@ \belowdisplayshortskip 4\p@ plus2\p@ minus2\p@ \def\@listi{\leftmargin\leftmargini \topsep 2\p@ plus1\p@ minus1\p@ \parsep 2\p@ plus\p@ minus\p@ \itemsep 1pt} } \makeatother \fvset{frame=single,numberblanklines=false,xleftmargin=5mm,xrightmargin=5mm} \fancyhf{} \setlength{\headheight}{14pt} \fancyhead[LE]{\bfseries\leftmark} \fancyhead[RO]{\bfseries\rightmark} \fancyfoot[RO]{} \fancyfoot[CO]{\thepage} \fancyfoot[LO]{\TheID} \fancyfoot[LE]{} \fancyfoot[CE]{\thepage} \fancyfoot[RE]{\TheID} \hypersetup{citebordercolor=0.75 0.75 0.75,linkbordercolor=0.75 0.75 0.75,urlbordercolor=0.75 0.75 0.75,bookmarksnumbered=true} \fancypagestyle{plain}{\fancyhead{}\renewcommand{\headrulewidth}{0pt}} \date{} \usepackage{authblk} \providecommand{\keywords}[1] { \footnotesize \textbf{\textit{Index terms---}} #1 } \usepackage{graphicx,xcolor} \definecolor{GJBlue}{HTML}{273B81} \definecolor{GJLightBlue}{HTML}{0A9DD9} \definecolor{GJMediumGrey}{HTML}{6D6E70} \definecolor{GJLightGrey}{HTML}{929497} \renewenvironment{abstract}{% \setlength{\parindent}{0pt}\raggedright \textcolor{GJMediumGrey}{\rule{\textwidth}{2pt}} \vskip16pt \textcolor{GJBlue}{\large\bfseries\abstractname\space} }{% \vskip8pt \textcolor{GJMediumGrey}{\rule{\textwidth}{2pt}} \vskip16pt } \usepackage[absolute,overlay]{textpos} \makeatother \usepackage{lineno} \linenumbers \begin{document} \author[1]{Naji Alyami} \author[2]{Naji Alyami} \affil[1]{ University of Central Lancashire} \renewcommand\Authands{ and } \date{\small \em Received: 13 December 2015 Accepted: 5 January 2016 Published: 15 January 2016} \maketitle \begin{abstract} This paper investigates the most and the least frequently used vocabulary learning strategies (VLSs) among Saudi undergraduate learners, in Najran University, Saudi Arabia. It forms part of a larger study investigating the different uses of VLSs and how they are perceived by Saudi learners studying a range of different majors. The sample consisted of 158 male and female students, who were asked to report their uses of the seventy-five VLSs (which were divided into 12 dimensions) using a five-point Likert scale in which 1 represents ?never?, 2 represents ?rarely?, 3 represents ?sometimes?, 4 represents ?often?, and 5 represents ?always?. A questionnaire was used for the purpose of collecting the data, which were subsequently computed and analysed using descriptive statistics. This involved calculating the overall means of all dimensions and ranking them in order, as well as giving the mean values for the most and least used VLSs in order. The results indicated that, in certain situations, learners tend to focus more on the meaning of words in L1 than in L2. This is the case, for example, when students use a dictionary to look up the meaning of a new word, when they ask teachers or classmates about the L1 equivalent of an English word, and when they are writing down new L2 words with their L1 translations. The least frequently used strategies were those that require higher order thinking skills, such as ?organizing words by meaning group?. Moreover, the most frequently used dimension was ?reasons for note taking strategies?, while the least frequently used dimension was ?ways of organizing notes taken?. \end{abstract} \keywords{language learning strategies, vocabulary learning strategies (VLSs), L1, L2.} \begin{textblock*}{18cm}(1cm,1cm) % {block width} (coords) \textcolor{GJBlue}{\LARGE Global Journals \LaTeX\ JournalKaleidoscope\texttrademark} \end{textblock*} \begin{textblock*}{18cm}(1.4cm,1.5cm) % {block width} (coords) \textcolor{GJBlue}{\footnotesize \\ Artificial Intelligence formulated this projection for compatibility purposes from the original article published at Global Journals. However, this technology is currently in beta. \emph{Therefore, kindly ignore odd layouts, missed formulae, text, tables, or figures.}} \end{textblock*} \let\tabcellsep& \section[{Introduction}]{Introduction}\par eachers of languages and linguistics claim that vocabulary is one of the most important aspects of language learning; some even believe that vocabulary is more important than grammar. {\ref Wilkins (1972:111)} notes that "without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed". {\ref Cook (1991:37}) also states that "grammar provides the overall patterns, vocabulary the material to put in the patterns". Furthermore, Luo (1992, cited in Lessard-Clouston 1996:27) asserts that "vocabularywords, phrases, idioms, etc. is at the heart of all language usage in the skill areas of listening, speaking, reading, and writing, as well as culture." These statements all support the vital role played by vocabulary, in both first and second language acquisition, in achieving comprehensible communication. Learners need to build up their vocabulary and expand their repertoires. They are more likely to carry a dictionary with them than a grammatical reference book, and they admit that their main problem is not knowing enough words {\ref (Krashen, 1989:440)}.\par In recent years, there has been a greater focus on vocabulary, and on VLSs (VLSs) in particular. \hyperref[b7]{Hulstijn (1993)} suggests that teachers should not only teach learners certain words, but should also provide them with strategies for expanding their vocabulary knowledge.\par As noted earlier, this paper is part of a larger study investigating the different uses of VLSs and how they are perceived by Saudi learners studying a range of different majors. However, it also attempts to determine which VLSs, and which dimensions, are most and least frequently used by Saudi learners. \section[{II.}]{II.} \section[{Literatuer Review a) Vocabulary Knowledge}]{Literatuer Review a) Vocabulary Knowledge}\par Miller (1996:5) as cited in {\ref (Qian, 2002:21)} states that, in order to produce a comprehensible output, learners need to know the following key aspects about a word: "its sound, its own spelling, its own meaning, its own role, its own use, its own history". {\ref Nation (2001:27)} has summarized what is involved in knowing a word. As can be seen in table 1 below, knowing every aspect of a word might be somewhat tedious for L2 learners.\par Table {\ref 1} : What is involved in knowing a word \hyperref[b13]{(Nation, 2001}:27) (Note: R = receptive knowledge, P = productive knowledge)\par It is obvious that learners should know many aspects about a word. {\ref Nation (2001:23)} pointed out "there are many things to know about any particular word and there are many degrees of knowing?words are not isolated units of language, but fit into many interlocking systems and levels" (ibid:23). However, they do not need to know all of the aspects. Thus, table 2 summarizes those aspects which I believe to be the most important. It is better to address LLSs before addressing VLSs, as the former may shed light on the latter. As noted by \hyperref[b18]{Segler (2001)}, the majority of LLSs taxonomies are VLSs, and can therefore be used to learn L2 vocabulary. Thus, "combining the results from general learning strategies research with those from more vocabulary-specific studies allows us to derive a number of tentative general conclusions about vocabulary learning strategies" {\ref (Schmitt, 1997:200)}.\par A number of definitions for LLSs have been proposed, as there is no overall agreement on what constitutes a LLS (O'Malley, Chamot, Stewner-Manzanares, \hyperref[b14]{Kupper, \& Russo, 1985)}. This is because researchers define LLS based on their own research interests and foci. Oxford (1990:1) provides the following definition: "[L]earning strategies are tools for active, selfdirected involvement, which is essential for developing communicative competence. Appropriate language learning strategies result in improved proficiency and greater self-confidence." {\ref Cook (2001:127)} stresses that LLS are choices made by learners of a second language that affect the learning process. According to {\ref Chamot (1987:71)}, "learning strategies are techniques, approaches, or deliberate actions that students take in order to facilitate the learning and recall of both linguistic and content area information."\par Although researchers have argued about the definition of LLSs, {\ref Nation (2001:217)} suggests that LLSs should meet the following criteria: they should involve choice, i.e. there should be several strategies to choose from; they should be complex, i.e. there should be several steps to learn; they should require knowledge and practising them should be beneficial to learners; and they should increase the efficiency of vocabulary learning and vocabulary use.\par Since there are several definitions of LLSs, there are also a number of different taxonomies. A well-known taxonomy of LLSs was proposed by Oxford (1990:14-15), who believes that her classification is more detailed and comprehensive than other LLS taxonomies. Other researchers agree with Oxford's claims and consider that her taxonomy is the most suitable way of classifying LLSs \hyperref[b6]{(Ellis, 1994;}\hyperref[b17]{Schmitt, 1997)}. Figure {\ref 1} shows Oxford's classification of LLSs. \section[{Fig. 1 : Oxford's Classification of language learning strategies c) Vocabulary Learning Strategies (VLSs)}]{Fig. 1 : Oxford's Classification of language learning strategies c) Vocabulary Learning Strategies (VLSs)}\par During the last two decades, researchers, teachers, and authors have paid more attention to LLS, particularly in the field of second language acquisition (SLA). As a result, there has been a greater focus on VLSs; this is because they are part of LLSs. This is addressed by {\ref Nation (2001:217)}, who states that "vocabulary learning strategies are a part of language learning strategies which, in turn, are a part of general learning strategies". It is now clear that VLSs are related to LLS and that, consequently, the definitions and classifications of VLSs will be similar to those of LLSs. VLSs can be defined as:"[K]nowledge about the mechanism (processes, strategies) used in order to learn vocabulary as well as steps or actions taken by students (a) to find out the meaning of unknown words, (b) to retain them in long-term memory, (c) to recall them at will, and (d) to use them in oral or written mode." {\ref (Catalán 2003: 56)} Moreover, VLSs can be taught in the classroom and learners can be taught how to use them effectively. Successful training in VLSs can help learners to build up their repertoire and can also improve their vocabulary retention. Training of this nature would help L2 learners to be more confident in learning new vocabulary outside the classroom.\par that researchers would base their VLS taxonomies on the existing LLS taxonomies. For example, Schmitt (1997) developed his taxonomy of VLSs on the basis of Oxford's taxonomy of LLSs h (1990), stating that, "Of the more established systems, the one developed by Oxford (op. cit.), seemed best able to capture and organize the wide variety of: identified" (op.cit:205).\par Schmitt's (1997) classification divided VLSs into two main categories: discovery strategies, and consolidation strategies. The former deals with strategies than can be used to find out "initial information about a new word", whereas the latter comprises strategies that can be used by learners to retain the new words once taught or encountered. \section[{Methodology a) Research Questions}]{Methodology a) Research Questions}\par This study attempts to answer the following initial research questions:\par ? What are the most and the least frequently used VLSs among Saudi undergraduate students?\par ? What are the most and the least used frequently used dimensions among Saudi undergraduate students. \section[{b) Participants}]{b) Participants}\par A total of 158 male and female participants from different disciplines were chosen from Najran University in Saudi Arabia. The subjects were fairly homogenous, as they were all between 20 and 22 years old and were all in their second year of study. In addition, all of the participants had studied English for seven years at secondary school level, and none of them had previously lived in, or visited, an English speaking country. \section[{c) Instruments}]{c) Instruments}\par There are many ways of collecting data on VLSs, and the choice of method will depend on a number of factors, such as the research questions, the reliability and validity of the instruments, and time constraints \hyperref[b2]{(Cohen, 1998)}. Hatch and Farhady (1982, cited in Larsen-Freeman \& Long, 1991:10) state that "research is a systematic approach to finding answers to questions". Thus, "individual researchers have a freedom of choice. They are 'free' to choose the methods, techniques, and procedures of research that best meet their needs and purposes" {\ref (Creswell, 2003:12)}. With regard to this paper, the chosen instrument of data collection was the questionnaire. We have adopted \hyperref[b10]{Marin's (2005)} questionnaire, and we have added some items from McCrostie's (2007) questionnaires, all of which were largely based on the items previously proposed and analysed by \hyperref[b17]{Schmitt (1997)}. Responses to each item of the questionnaire were measured using a type of Likert scale; the possible answers were (1) ever, (2) seldom, (3) sometimes, (4) often, and (5) always. On the subject of reliability, Oppenheim (1992:69) says, "Reliability refers to consistency; obtaining the same results again". According to \hyperref[b12]{Mueller (1986)}, the Cronbach's alpha coefficient of reliable results should be .80 or higher. As can be seen in table \hyperref[tab_1]{3}, the Cronbach's alpha for our 75 items was .84, thus indicating that the results of the study were reliable and valid. \section[{d) Data Collection and Analysis}]{d) Data Collection and Analysis}\par The questionnaire was distributed to participants after completion of a consent form. To compensate for the Hawthorne effect (i.e. the observer effect), participants were asked to report their actual usage of the various VLSs, not what they thought would please the researcher. The questionnaire took between 25 and 30 minutes to complete.\par Once the data had been collected, the SPSS (version 21) statistical software was used to analyse the quantitative data. Seventy-five strategies, which comprise the dependent variables, were entered in 75 columns. The SPSS software was then used to analyse the VLSQ replies of each informant. Data analysis methods such as means and standard deviations were used. For example, the mean frequency for each VLS item (75 items) was calculated in order to identify the overall patterns of strategies across 12 dimensions, without taking any variables into consideration. The mean results for the 75 strategies were then averaged in order to produce scores for each of the 12 dimensions in the study. The aim of this was to identify the dimensions, which were the most and the least frequently used by our participants, regardless of any variables, when using VLSs.\par IV. \section[{Results and Discussion}]{Results and Discussion} \section[{a) Frequency of VLS use across all dimensions}]{a) Frequency of VLS use across all dimensions}\par This section deals with the overall strategy employed by Saudi undergraduate learners. As can be seen in table {\ref 4}, the most frequently used strategy among learners, with a mean score of 4.58, was "checking the Arabic meaning of new words by using a dictionary", and the second most frequently used strategy related to the type of dictionary used -using a mobile phone had a mean score of 4.42. The third most commonly used strategy, with a mean score of 4.33, was "asking a teacher or friends about its equivalent Arabic meaning".\par Looking at the four dimensions (i.e. VLSD4, VLSD3, VLSD2 and VLSD5), it seems that it is obvious that learners will use L1. This is because learners' native language plays an important role in their comprehension of the target language. Using L1 makes the learning process much easier for them. Moreover, checking the meaning by using L1 is probably preferable to the learners because many English words change their meaning according to the context in which they are used. For example, the word "play" has a different meaning when used in the phrase "play music" than in "I saw a play in a theatre". Therefore, the use of L1 was second most dominant strategy, after strategies that are related VLSD8, which deals with reasons for noting vocabulary. \section[{Table 4 : The ten most frequently used VLSs}]{Table 4 : The ten most frequently used VLSs}\par Note: VLSD3 = Types of dictionary used; VLSD4 = Information taken from dictionaries; VLSD5 = Types of information noted VLSD6 = Locations of vocabulary note taking strategy and VLSD7 = Ways of organizing words noted.\par Among Saudi undergraduate learners, the least frequently used strategy, with a mean score of 1.56, was keeping notes on wall charts (see table \hyperref[tab_2]{5}). Interestingly, all dimensions, except VLSD3 and VLSD4, were related to vocabulary note-taking strategies, suggesting that the majority of the least frequently used strategies were those relating to taking notes. Of those less frequently used strategies, four (i.e. "organizing the word by their grammar category", "organizing the words in alphabetical order", "organize the words into families with the same stem" and "organize the words by their meaning group") were from VLSD7 ("ways of organizing words noted").\par It is understandable why the mean score for keeping notes on cards was so low (1.5): notes on cards are easily lost and are hard to keep tidy. Moreover, making notes on cards is not practical, as it requires learners to write notes on both sides of the card; this is time consuming and is not very effective. Therefore, learners disregard this type of strategy. With regard to ways of organizing notes, learners knew that organizing words would require a significant amount of effort and a high level of mental process. For example, "organizing words by their meaning groups", which received a mean score of 1.8 (close to "never" in our Likert scale), requires a certain degree of mental manipulation. In fact, all of the least frequently employed strategies from VLSD7 require a high level of mental manipulation. Another example is the strategy of "organizing words in alphabetical order". Once again, this involves the use of higher-level mental processes. \section[{b) Frequency of VLS use by dimensions}]{b) Frequency of VLS use by dimensions}\par Table \hyperref[tab_3]{6} shows which dimensions are most and least frequently used by our informants. Interestingly, this table reflects our earlier findings on the most and least frequently used VLSs across dimensions (see table \hyperref[tab_2]{4 and table 5}), that is, "reasons for vocabulary note taking" (i.e. VNSD8) (mean 3.73). As found earlier, four strategies relating to (VLSD7) were among the ten least frequently used VLSs. Therefore, we can say that, amongst our participants, the least frequently used dimension was "ways of organizing words noted" (i.e. VLSD7), with a mean score of 2.22.\par Participants demonstrated a high level of interest in word-selection criteria; this could be attributed to the fact that the informants focused more on notetaking than on any other category. Their non-use of ways of organizing words when taking notes was probably caused by the abundance of different ways available -this leads note-takers to neglect many of them. Moreover, it could be because such strategies require higher order mental processes \section[{Conclusion}]{Conclusion}\par The purpose of this paper was to investigate the VLSs that are the most and least frequently used by Saudi undergraduate learners. The study was conducted on one hundred and fifty-eight Saudi university students in Saudi Arabia. Data analysis, including mean frequency, was applied in order to determine the overall use of VLSs across dimensions and by dimensions.\par The findings for the first research question (what are the most and the least frequently used VLSs among Saudi undergraduate students?) reveals that Saudi learners prefer to use their native language (Arabic) when they encounter new words, suggesting that using L1 is a dominant choice. These strategies were "checking the Arabic meaning of new words by using a dictionary" and "asking a teacher or friends about its equivalent Arabic meaning". Note-taking strategies, on the other hand, were the least frequently used, particularly VLSD 7 "ways of organizing words noted". This suggests that learners are unlikely to favour strategies that require the use of higher-level cognitive processes.\par The findings for the second research question (what are the most and the least frequently used dimensions among Saudi undergraduate students?) indicate that learners prefer to note down a lot of new words, but they do not tend to organize them according to their grammatical function, in alphabetical orders, or according to their meaning.\par Learners should be given more encouragement to use L2 rather than L1. For example, it would be better if they checked the English meaning of new L2 words, rather than checking what they mean in Arabic. This strategy would build their repertoire, since the English definition in the dictionary would give them more detailed information about the target word.\begin{figure}[htbp] \noindent\textbf{2}\includegraphics[]{image-2.png} \caption{\label{fig_0}Figure 2 shows}\end{figure} \begin{figure}[htbp] \noindent\textbf{2}\includegraphics[]{image-3.png} \caption{\label{fig_1}Fig. 2 :}\end{figure} \begin{figure}[htbp] \noindent\textbf{}\includegraphics[]{image-4.png} \caption{\label{fig_3}}\end{figure} \begin{figure}[htbp] \noindent\textbf{2} \par \begin{longtable}{} \end{longtable} \par {\small\itshape [Note: b) Language Learning Strategies (LLSs)]} \caption{\label{tab_0}Table 2 :}\end{figure} \begin{figure}[htbp] \noindent\textbf{3} \par \begin{longtable}{P{0.4486111111111111\textwidth}P{0.40138888888888885\textwidth}} Cronbach's alpha\tabcellsep Number of items\\ .84\tabcellsep 75\end{longtable} \par \caption{\label{tab_1}Table 3 :}\end{figure} \begin{figure}[htbp] \noindent\textbf{5} \par \begin{longtable}{} \end{longtable} \par \caption{\label{tab_2}Table 5 :}\end{figure} \begin{figure}[htbp] \noindent\textbf{6} \par \begin{longtable}{P{0.85\textwidth}} V.\end{longtable} \par \caption{\label{tab_3}Table 6 :}\end{figure} \footnote{© 2016 Global Journals Inc. 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