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             \author[1]{Lama  Al-kayed}

             \affil[1]{  Princess Noura Bint Abdul Rahman University}

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\date{\small \em Received: 14 April 2015 Accepted: 30 April 2015 Published: 15 May 2015}

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\begin{abstract}
        


Recent deliverances by king Abdullah in Saudi Arabia (SA) has opened many doors for women over the past seven years. Women joined the consultative assembly in 2013, in the same year three women were named as deputy chair persons of three committees. In 2011 King Abdullah announced that women would be allowed to vote and run for office in the 2015 municipal elections. All these actions grant Saudi women the chance to occupy managerial positions in many organizations. However, Saudi women in managerial positions face many challenges. The purpose of this study is to recognize the challenges that female managers in public Saudi universities face in their managerial positions. The paper adopted an in- depth personal interviewsmethod in order to gain a deep understanding of the specific challenges faced by female managers in public universities. Nineteen female managers of which 10 were in high managerial positions of universities were interviewed. The study found that Saudi female managers face a number of challenges, the most important challenge is the long working hours, dealing with different natures of subordinates and lack of authorization. The study provided a number of recommendations to decision makers in order to alleviate those challenges such as the limitation of female long working hours by decentralization and better distribution of work load. Training programs in management and communication skills would help female managers to better manage and communicate with subordinates. Authorization should be given to female managers in order to be able to issue decisions necessary for their departments.

\end{abstract}


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\let\tabcellsep& 	 	 		 
\section[{Introduction}]{Introduction}\par
managerial positions of universities were interviewed. The study found that Saudi female managers face a number of challenges, the most important challenge is the long working hours, dealing with different natures of subordinates and lack of authorization. The study provided a number of recommendations to decision makers in order to alleviate those challenges such as the limitation of female long working hours by decentralization and better distribution of work load. Training programs in management and communication skills would help female managers to better manage and communicate with subordinates. Authorization should be given to female managers in order to be able to issue decisions necessary for their departments.\par
omen over the world are not represented in leadership positions, for example, in 2004 only 7\% of the universities were managed by women world-wide \hyperref[b12]{(Zinyemba, 2013)}. In Saudi Arabia (SA hereafter), recent deliverances by king has opened many doors for women over the past seven years. Women joined the consultative assembly in 2013, occupying 30 seats. In the same year, three women were named as deputy chair persons of three committees \hyperref[b9]{(Al Qahtani, 2013)}. For many decades, women could not vote or run for office in the country's municipal elections, but in September 2011 King Abdullah announced that women would be allowed to vote and run for office in the 2015 municipal elections. Women are now allowed to hold positions on boards of Author: Princess Noura Bint Abdul Rahman University. e-mail: lama.alkayed@gmail.com chambers of commerce. In 2010, the government announced female lawyers would be allowed to represent women in family cases. Moreover, SA is the home of Princess NourahBintAbdulrahman university (PNU), the world's largest women-only university. PNU is the only university that is run entirely by women in SA.\par
According to manpower research bulletin (2013) published by central department of statistics and information, 14.6\% of employed persons are women in SA. According to the education bulletin (2013) 17.1\% of Ph.D holders are females, 22.6\% of master degree holders are females, 42\% of university degree holders are women, while 8.63\% of women are illiterate. These figures show that women in SA are becoming more educated and are penetrating workforce in an increasing percentage. All these actions grant Saudi women the chance to occupy managerial positions in many organizations. However, Saudi women in managerial positions face many challenges. 
\section[{II.}]{II.} 
\section[{Purpose of the Study}]{Purpose of the Study}\par
The purpose of this paper is to recognize the challenges that women in government Saudi universities face in their managerial positions to bring awareness and discuss possible solutions, it is hoped that the results of the study would help alleviate the challenges that female managers face by increasing awareness, and illustrating the predominance of several factors prohibiting females' advancement within the educational industry. It is prospected that the study findings will not only be of academic concern, but will also be beneficial for industry leaders and policy makers. 
\section[{III.}]{III.} 
\section[{Literature Review}]{Literature Review}\par
Traditionally, the vast majority of top leadership positions in both the USA and throughout the world have been held by males rather than females. Even though there is an increasing number of women who enter the workforce and an increasing number of managerial positions, women's access to leadership positions remains limited  {\ref (Black and Rothman, 1998;} {\ref Eagly et al., 2003;} {\ref Oakley, 2000;} {\ref Ridgeway, 2001;} {\ref Stelter, 2002} {\ref from Weyer, 2007)}.\par
Women worldwide face challenges related to the expectations placed upon them because of their gender. These gender role expectations require women to take care of their home, husband and children while men spend most of the time away from home \hyperref[b12]{(Zinyemba, 2013)}. Women face the challenge of balancing work and life, and at work women managers face challenges related to gender prejudices. Women are seen as soft and weak and less committed to work thanmen \hyperref[b12]{(Zinyemba, 2013)}. \hyperref[b11]{Weyer (2007)} provided the theoretical explanation for the persistence of the glass ceiling keeping women from assuming leadership positions. Two theories were discussed; social role theory and expectation states theory, both theories belong to the structural/cultural models describing differences between the genders. The two theories explicate diverse reasons for the emergence of these differences. However, both theories propose that gender differences will result in evaluation bias against women. Both theories are based on the concept that men and women are allocated different roles in society due to their gender. According to the social role theory, women and men leaders behave somewhat differently because gender roles exert some influence on leadership roles in terms of the expectations they and others hold (Eagly, 1987 from \hyperref[b11]{Weyer, 2007)}. Expectation states theoryexpands upon social role theory and implies that "it is the status element of genderstereotypes that cause such stereotypes to act as distinctively powerful barriers towomen's achievement of positions of authority, leadership, and power" (Ridgeway ,2001, p. 638 from \hyperref[b11]{Weyer, 2007)}.While social role theory proposes that bias in evaluations is based upon theincongruence of roles held by women, expectation states theory proposes that the lowerstatus of women causes bias in evaluations  {\ref (weyer, 2007)}.\par
A number of studies examined the challenges females face in their work. \hyperref[b12]{Zinyemba (2013)} examined the challenges that women face in the hospitality and financial services sectors in Zimbabwe where women have traditionally been found in supportive low level positions. The research identified a number of challenges which related to gender role expectations as wife and parenting. The study established that women managers in the hospitality and financial services sectors in Zimbabwe face challenges of balancing work and life due to culture and gender role expectations placed upon them and the pressures of full time employment. The challenges make it difficult for women to break the glass ceiling 2 2 Glass ceiling is a political term used to describe "the unseen, yet unbreakable barrier that keeps minorities and women from rising to the upper rungs of the corporate ladder, regardless of their qualifications or achievements." (Federal Glass Ceiling Commission. Good for Business: Making Full Use of the Nation's Human Capital.   {\ref (2009)} in Serbia asked 300 women managers about their career challenges. The study found that the majority of women in managerial positions hold a university degree and are in the most productive time of their life (30 -45 years of age). Usually they have held a managerial position for over 5 years, are ready to change their job if this will bring them a promotion and new challenges, and they have proved themselves professionally in a number of different companies. The study also found that the basic limiting factor for developing a career is the decision to start a family, i.e. family obligations that require additional time and energy that women need to balance together with their work obligations on a daily basis. A large number of women think that they are less competitive then men of the same profession and level of education. The other obstacle that the study has found is the traditional Serbian society which has not fully accepted the role of a woman as a professional. Gender and age biases are readily present in the society and this is also a hindering factor for career development.\par
AI-Ahmadi (2011) conducted a study on 160 Saudi women leaders in various government sectorsto identify challenges that female leaders face in Saudi Arabia.Al-Ahmadi (2011) found that structural challenges, particularly those associated with the centralization of the decision-making process, lack of authority and participation in the formulation of strategy, are found to be the most important challenges facing women leaders in SA. This may be due to the fact that women's access to leadership positions in SA is relatively recent, so there may still be concerns regarding their capabilities and managerial efficiency. Contrary to the prevailing perspective, the study found that cultural challenges are less importantcompared to the other challenges faced by women leaders. This is an indication ofchanging perception of the role of women in society and a reflection of the policy ofKing Abdullah who calls for the integration ofwomen in decisionmaking positions.\par
This study differs from Al-Ahmadi (  {\ref 2011}) study in that it focuses on Saudi female leaders in public universities in specific, while Al-Ahmadi sample composed female leaders from various government sectors. The study therefore, will provide findings which are not only be of academic concern, but will also be beneficial for industry leaders and policy makers in forming policies concerning public universities. The teaching sector is one of the main fields of working opportunities for Saudi women and one with particular attention from government leaders, thus, this study will provide guidance and awareness of current challenges and possible solutions. AI-Lamki (1999) addressed the role of Omani women in management positions in the Sultanate of Oman and the obstacles hindering Omani women's progress into managerial positions. Her study indicated that while in principle women in Oman have been accorded equal educational and employment rights;in practice, discrimination against women exists in the workplace. Thissituation made it more difficult for women who aspire to be in managementpositions. Several of the respondents have articulated that merely being a woman is a major obstacle to professional development. \hyperref[b7]{Mostafa (2005)} investigated United Arab Emirates (UAE) society's attitudes towards women managers held by a sample of 186 participants. \hyperref[b7]{Mostafa (2005)} concluded that there exists a moderate change from expected restrictive traditional attitudes towards women managers in the UAE to a more liberal view. Despite the liberal view reflected by participants in his study, the results of the research should by no means be interpreted as the UAE moving away rapidly from a patriarchal and traditional society, Emirate's society is generally regarded as highly patriarchal, with clear-cut gender role differences. The UAE's society still generally value patriarchy.\par
IV. 
\section[{Research Methodology}]{Research Methodology}\par
The study employed an in-depth personal interviews method to qualitative research in order to gain a deep understanding of the specific challenges faced by female managers in public universities. The study was based on an in-depth personal interviews of 19female managers of which 10 were in high managerial positions of universities. The sample of 19 managers is a random sample that was chosen randomly from 2 public universities in Riyadh. The qualitative data was processed and analyzed using SPSS computer software program.\par
Beside personal questions to the interviewees, the specific questions asked in the research study were:  
\section[{Research Results}]{Research Results}\par
Tables \hyperref[b0]{(1)}\hyperref[b1]{(2)}\hyperref[b2]{(3)}\hyperref[b3]{(4)}\hyperref[b4]{(5)}\hyperref[b5]{(6)}\hyperref[b6]{(7)}\hyperref[b7]{(8)}\hyperref[b8]{(9)}\hyperref[b9]{(10)}\hyperref[b10]{(11)}\hyperref[b11]{(12)}\hyperref[b12]{(13)} show the descriptive statistics for the interviewees, Table \hyperref[b0]{(1)} shows that most of the interviewees were in their late thirties and forties, 8 managers were of the ages 35-44 and 8 were more than 44 years. This is the normal age of a person to hold a managerial position, an employee starts in low level positions and gradually promotes to high levels when they gain experience. Table \hyperref[b1]{(2)} shows the distribution of experience of the interviewees, most female managers interviewed (10 managers) have more than 5 years of experience. This shows that public universities appoint the most experienced in managerial positions, and shows that females in public universities spend at least 5 or more years in order to advance and promote to managerial positions. 
\section[{Leadership Challenges for Women Managers in Public Universities in Saudi Arabia}]{Leadership Challenges for Women Managers in Public Universities in Saudi Arabia}\par
Abdalla (1996) investigated the attitudes towards women in Kuwait and Qatar, he found that despitethe appearances of opulence, moderate advancement and educational achievements, Arabian Gulf women are lockedin restrictive traditional roles. Abdallah  {\ref (1996)} suggested that the Arabian Gulf women, particularly thosewho are in the same situation as the Qatariwomen, may have not taken the first step inthe road to genuine equal rights and opportunities. However, Abdallah (1996) concluded that there are many indicatorsthat the situation may change in favor ofwomen in the near future, particularly interms of the educational and employment opportunities.  Table \hyperref[b4]{(5)} below shows the marital status of interviewees where most of the female managers were found to be married. This shows that female managers tend to be successful in their private life as well as at work. Table \hyperref[b6]{(7)} below shows that most female managers (11 out of 1) were satisfied with their role as wife, mother and member of family. This indicates that female managers can handle managerial positions without affecting their roles at home.  Table \hyperref[b7]{(8)} shows that most of the female managers (16 out of 19) believe that the decision of marriage and starting a family is not a limiting factor for the development of a career. This result differs from the findings of studies in other countries, Stanton Chase (2009) found that women in Serbia, regardless of the different family status and age, were unanimous in their view that the natural decision to start a family is the basic limiting factor, primarily due to pregnancy leave and the later care of the young offspring. However, Saudi female managers do not perceive marriage as a limiting factor for the development of a career or managerial position. In fact participants view marriage as the first step to start a career. Because of the culture of Saudi Arabia a female cannot work unless she has permission from her guardian (father, husband or brother).According to the interviewees, the Saudi society has changed lately to appreciate woman's work and perceive that when a woman is a producing factor in society, she produces more at home and becomes a model for her children to be productive. 
\section[{Global Journal of Human Social Science}]{Global Journal of Human Social Science}\par
As long as women are able to balance their work-family obligations, marriage will not be a limiting factor for her career. Some managers believe that a woman's fate is linked to man, for example teaching assistants cannot travel on a scholarship if her guardian refuses. Marriage is not considered a limiting factor unless the man is the obstacle, some husbands refuse a woman to be higher in academic degree or managerial positions than they are.\par
According to participants who believe that marriage is a limiting factor, the reason is increased attention towards family and children. Family might pressure the female manager because of her new responsibilities. Table \hyperref[b8]{(9)} below shows that most female managers in public universities were able to balance their family and work obligations, 9 out of 19 were able to balance, while 4 said they were able to balance to some extent and 6 said they could not balance their work-family life. Participants who couldn't balance and those who balanced to some extent had feelings of dereliction towards their families and home because their work took most of their time. Some participants said even in social occasions there is dereliction since they spend most of their time at work. Interviewees who couldn't balance their work-family life felt that Saudi women are in a phase of proving themselves at work which leads to no balance since female managers give most of their time to work in order to prove themselves. efficient, and 6 out of 19 think that there is no difference between men and women and that it all depends on personality characteristics.\par
Most females perceive men as efficient decision makers because the Saudi society is a patriarchal society.Most females believe that men have general personal characteristics in men such as endurance, flexibility and wisdom. Men better know of the requirements of professional and family life. Because men have been given more opportunities, they have more experience and high education which makes them efficient decision makers. Women are viewed as emotional and moody, according to participants, this is because of changing hormones in women, which affects their decision making. Women also suffer social fear which affects their confidence in their decisions. A lot of variables affect a females' decision, for example, women suffer social fear because there is still concern about their efficiency in managerial positions. However participants agree that SA is in the era of women's empowerment, especially in the last two years, women are given great work opportunities.\par
Six out of 19 interviewees believe there is no difference in efficiency in decision making because it depends on experience and personal characteristics. In some cases,women are more efficient, such as in teaching where participants believe that women are more efficient and more punctual. 
\section[{Some opinions of participants:}]{Some opinions of participants:}\par
"a woman doesn't lack efficiency or merit in holding managerial positions but she is exposed to a lot of physiological variables. Man has the ability of making quick decisions and taking responsibility for it more than a woman" "society still limits women's work, there is importance for females' work but her participation in society is still limited to the educational or health sectors. Society has to spread the culture of supporting woman's' work inside and outside the home"\par
"man can be more flexible but not necessarily more efficient, females always have feelings of inferiority, therefore, they tend to be inflexible in order to prove themselves. Men on the other hand are easier to deal with and more flexible especially in government organizations". Table \hyperref[b10]{(11)} shows that most female managers (7 out of 19) believe they are not rewarded equally as men in similar positions. These participants believe there is still prejudice towards women although things have changed recently. Participants believe that since women work inside the house there shouldn't be equality in working hours because men are also capable of enduring long working hours.\par
Participants who answered "yes" believe that there is equality because the Saudi society has changed and now there is no difference in woman's appreciation compared to men as it was before. Some interviewees believe that although there is equality, society still gives priority to men. Those who answered "No" believe there is prejudice towards women although things have changed lately. Men have greater opportunities and are taking control over certain opportunities. Sometimes men perceive that certain positions are too high for a woman to hold. One of the participants stated:\par
"there is no difference in rewards. However, in universities were there are both female and male departments, we find that women have not yet received managerial or leadership positions except in Princess Nourah university because it is the only university run entirely by women. Men have more opportunities, we find them consultants and we find them getting the needed funds for their research more than women". Table \hyperref[b11]{(12)} below shows that most female managers (11 out of 19) think that it is harder for women than for men to build their career and managerial positions. Women face more challenges because they have to balance between work and home and they have greater responsibilities. Circumstances are not easy for women because if the guardian is against the idea that a she be higher in educational or managerial position than him, then they won't let her achieve anything. Some participants believe that women burrow into the rock until now, sometimes family is against female education, sometimes even if close family supports female's education then broader family or society itself limits it. Women face more challenges because she has double roles, restrictions and dependency of family. The Saudi culture has great dependency on the mother, therefore, her responsibilities inside home are tremendous.\par
Six participants believe that men face more challenges because they are responsible for building a family, if a woman cannot build a career she can still build a family but men can't. Some participants have noted:\par
"women have taken their positions and more, they don't face challenges" "females face more challenges but it depends on the ages of the children, when children are young women face a lot of challenges balancing work and family but when children grow up and she is able to balance, things get easier. Women in the first 10 years of marriage should take care of their children only." "no, females don't face challenges nowadays. Nowadays things are much better, even scholarships for females are more than for males." Table \hyperref[b12]{(13)} below shows that most female managers (14 out of 19) have servants at home. This result can explain the ability of female managers to balance their work-family obligations. Great number of Saudi females depend on servants at home which enables them to balance their work and family life and gives them the opportunity to hold and accept managerial positions. Women in managerial positions with administrative experience are frustrated with the fact that they don't get the same opportunities and privileges as the academic staff. There is more attention and care for the academic staff compared to administrative officers. In consistency with the findings of Al-Ahmadi (2011) ,the study found that balancing work-family obligations is not the major challenge for Saudi female managers. This can be the result of dependency on servants at home to take care of house duties.\par
The most important challenges mentioned by most female managers were lack of authorization for females in their managerial positions and difficulties in dealing with the human element. Some interviewees mentioned:\par
"we lack administrative powers and there is a complete absence of financial powers, therefore I don't see a need for a manger with a high degree such as a professor to run a faculty, any administrative employee can do the work since there is a lack of authorization in the managerial position." "we suffer conflicting decisions, there is no coordination between university departments. One decision from a university department contradicts another decision from another department." "There's lack of work motivation in subordinates and negativity in others, so when there is work that needs to be done I have to sit for hours convincing them to finish their work." "my acceptance to hold a managerial position while my specialization is not in management. My experience is in teaching and in management. My ambitions are higher than capabilities. There's lack of possibilities, for example as a faculty we have limited facilities but acceptance of students is much more since the specialization is more wanted and there is lack of human staff also." "I wish for the creation of a ministry that cares about children's rights, there should be a limitation for women's working hours with children because it affects the psychology of the children and she would have feelings of dereliction  
\section[{Policy Implications}]{Policy Implications}\par
Most female workers face the challenge of long working hours, there should be a limitation of working hours for females to overcome this challenge. This limitation is especially important for female manages with children less than 4 years old because mother's absence affects the psychology of children and the mother would be overloaded by feelings of dereliction. Limitation of working hours can be done by avoiding excessive administrative work required from female managers. Decentralization and the better distribution of work would also help in the limitation of long working hours for female managers.\par
The second important challenge for female managers is dealing with the human element and the different natures of subordinates. Training programs should be given to managers to improve and provide them with the required communication skills that enable them to manage and deal with subordinates. Moreover, females in managerial positions have teaching experience and lack the skills of management. Therefore, training programs in managerial skills should be given to females in managerial positions to provide them with the required managerial skills that enable them to handle managerial work.\par
Female managers in public universities should be given the authorization to make decisions that are important for their departments. Most managers are frustrated with the centralization of decision making and the fact that they do not have the required authority to issue decisions important to their departments. There should be decentralization of decisions and enough authority in the hand of managers. Interference of higher management in the work of lower level managers is another challenge for female managers. There should be a limitation of the interference to supervisory roles only.\par
Administrative officers who have long experience but do not have higher degrees feel frustrated because they cannot promote to high level positions. There should be an orientation to train administrative officers and open opportunities for them to hold managerial positions.\par
There should be empowerment programs for women to give them the required confidence and also training programs in management and leadership to help them in decision making.\par
Bureaucracy and conflicting decisions should be solved for in universities. Academic environments should improve in a way to untangle bureaucracy. There should also be coordination between high level managers at universities to avoid conflicting decisions.  
\section[{Conclusion}]{Conclusion}\par
This paper aimed at recognizing the challenges that women in government Saudi universities face in their managerial positions to bring awareness and discuss possible solutions in hope that the results of the study would help alleviate those challenges.The study found that Saudi female managers face a number of challenges, the most important challengesare the long working hours, dealing with different natures of subordinates and lack of authorization. Balancing workfamily obligations is not the major challenge for Saudi female managers due dependency on servants at home to take care of house duties. Other challenges female managers in public universities face are continuous change of university forms and teaching staff, interference of higher management in the work of lower level managers, conflicting decisions, conflicting demands at the same time and lack of coordination between decision makers in high management levels, lack of available facilities especially of teaching staff, lack of motivation in subordinates, bureaucracy and having to combine teaching with managerial work at the same time.\par
The study provided a number of recommendations to decision makers in order to alleviate those challenges such as the limitation of female long working hours by decentralization and better distribution of work load. Training programs in management and communication skills would help female managers to better manage and communicate with subordinates. Bureaucracy and conflicting decisions should also be alleviated by better distribution of tasks and better coordination between high level managers.\begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{}\includegraphics[]{image-2.png}
\caption{\label{fig_2}}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.85\textwidth}}
No]\\
7. Who do you think is more efficient in decision\\
making, men or women? Why?\\
8. Do you think you are rewarded equally as men on\\
similar positions? [Yes, No]\\
9. Do you think it is harder for women than for men to\\
build a career? Why?\\
10. Do you have a servant at home? [Yes, No]\\
V.\end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_1}}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{(} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.031021897810218975\textwidth}P{0.17372262773722627\textwidth}P{0.09306569343065693\textwidth}P{0.1551094890510949\textwidth}P{0.3102189781021898\textwidth}P{0.08686131386861314\textwidth}}
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep Frequency\tabcellsep Percent\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Valid Percent Cumulative Percent}\\
Valid\tabcellsep 25-35 35-44\tabcellsep 3 8\tabcellsep 15.8 42.1\tabcellsep 15.8 42.1\tabcellsep 15.8 57.9\\
\tabcellsep more than 44\tabcellsep 8\tabcellsep 42.1\tabcellsep 42.1\tabcellsep 100.0\\
\tabcellsep Total\tabcellsep 19\tabcellsep 100.0\tabcellsep 100.0\tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_2}Table ( 1}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{(} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.25344585091420535\textwidth}P{0.16019690576652604\textwidth}P{0.035864978902953586\textwidth}P{0.2510548523206751\textwidth}P{0.1171589310829817\textwidth}P{0.032278481012658226\textwidth}}
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep Frequency\tabcellsep Percent\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Valid Percent Cumulative Percent}\\
Valid\tabcellsep less than 3 years\tabcellsep 7\tabcellsep 36.8\tabcellsep 36.8\tabcellsep 36.8\\
\tabcellsep 3-5 years\tabcellsep 2\tabcellsep 10.5\tabcellsep 10.5\tabcellsep 47.4\\
\tabcellsep more than 5 years\tabcellsep 10\tabcellsep 52.6\tabcellsep 52.6\tabcellsep 100.0\\
\tabcellsep Total\tabcellsep 19\tabcellsep 100.0\tabcellsep 100.0\tabcellsep \\
\multicolumn{3}{l}{Table (3) below shows the educational degree}\tabcellsep \multicolumn{3}{l}{deans of faculties or vice president of university}\\
\multicolumn{3}{l}{for female managers in public universities, where most}\tabcellsep \multicolumn{3}{l}{agencies. Bachelor degree holders were in positions of}\\
\multicolumn{3}{l}{managers were either PhD holders of bachelor degree}\tabcellsep \multicolumn{3}{l}{office or department managers in university's head}\\
\multicolumn{3}{l}{holders. The PhD holders were usually in positions as}\tabcellsep offices.\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
\tabcellsep \multicolumn{4}{l}{Table (3) : Educational degree: What is your educational degree?}\tabcellsep \\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep Frequency\tabcellsep Percent\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Valid Percent Cumulative Percent}\\
Valid\tabcellsep Bachelor PhD\tabcellsep 9 9\tabcellsep 47.4 47.4\tabcellsep 47.4 47.4\tabcellsep 47.4 94.7\\
\tabcellsep Other\tabcellsep 1\tabcellsep 5.3\tabcellsep 5.3\tabcellsep 100.0\\
\tabcellsep Total\tabcellsep 19\tabcellsep 100.0\tabcellsep 100.0\tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_3}Table ( 2}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{(} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.08652694610778443\textwidth}P{0.05598802395209581\textwidth}P{0.33592814371257484\textwidth}P{0.12215568862275449\textwidth}P{0.20359281437125748\textwidth}P{0.04580838323353294\textwidth}}
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{3}{l}{Table (4) : Are you a member of other organization?}\tabcellsep \\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep Frequency\tabcellsep Percent\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Valid Percent Cumulative Percent}\\
Valid\tabcellsep yes\tabcellsep 5\tabcellsep 26.3\tabcellsep 29.4\tabcellsep 29.4\\
\tabcellsep No\tabcellsep 12\tabcellsep 63.2\tabcellsep 70.6\tabcellsep 100.0\\
Missing\tabcellsep System\tabcellsep 2\tabcellsep 10.5\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Total\tabcellsep \tabcellsep 19\tabcellsep 100.0\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_4}Table ( 4}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{(} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.030357142857142853\textwidth}P{0.19428571428571428\textwidth}P{0.09714285714285714\textwidth}P{0.1457142857142857\textwidth}P{0.2975\textwidth}P{0.085\textwidth}}
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep Frequency\tabcellsep Percent\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Valid Percent Cumulative Percent}\\
Valid\tabcellsep Not married married\tabcellsep 3 15\tabcellsep 15.8 78.9\tabcellsep 15.8 78.9\tabcellsep 15.8 94.7\\
\tabcellsep divorced\tabcellsep 1\tabcellsep 5.3\tabcellsep 5.3\tabcellsep 100.0\\
\tabcellsep Total\tabcellsep 19\tabcellsep 100.0\tabcellsep 100.0\tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_5}Table ( 5}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{(} \par 
\begin{longtable}{}
\end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_6}Table ( 6}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{(} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.0194954128440367\textwidth}P{0.3587155963302752\textwidth}P{0.06628440366972477\textwidth}P{0.11307339449541284\textwidth}P{0.21055045871559633\textwidth}P{0.08188073394495413\textwidth}}
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep Frequency\tabcellsep Percent\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Valid Percent Cumulative Percent}\\
Valid\tabcellsep very satisfied\tabcellsep 5\tabcellsep 26.3\tabcellsep 26.3\tabcellsep 26.3\\
\tabcellsep satisfied\tabcellsep 11\tabcellsep 57.9\tabcellsep 57.9\tabcellsep 84.2\\
\tabcellsep Neither satisfied nor unsatisfied\tabcellsep 1\tabcellsep 5.3\tabcellsep 5.3\tabcellsep 89.5\\
\tabcellsep unsatisfied\tabcellsep 1\tabcellsep 5.3\tabcellsep 5.3\tabcellsep 94.7\\
\tabcellsep not satisfied at all\tabcellsep 1\tabcellsep 5.3\tabcellsep 5.3\tabcellsep 100.0\\
\tabcellsep Total\tabcellsep 19\tabcellsep 100.0\tabcellsep 100.0\tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_7}Table ( 6}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{(} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.019144144144144143\textwidth}P{0.3522522522522522\textwidth}P{0.06509009009009008\textwidth}P{0.11869369369369367\textwidth}P{0.2144144144144144\textwidth}P{0.0804054054054054\textwidth}}
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep Frequency\tabcellsep Percent\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Valid Percent Cumulative Percent}\\
Valid\tabcellsep very satisfied\tabcellsep 2\tabcellsep 10.5\tabcellsep 10.5\tabcellsep 10.5\\
\tabcellsep satisfied\tabcellsep 11\tabcellsep 57.9\tabcellsep 57.9\tabcellsep 68.4\\
\tabcellsep neither satisfied nor unsatisfied\tabcellsep 3\tabcellsep 15.8\tabcellsep 15.8\tabcellsep 84.2\\
\tabcellsep unsatisfied\tabcellsep 1\tabcellsep 5.3\tabcellsep 5.3\tabcellsep 89.5\\
\tabcellsep not satisfied at all\tabcellsep 2\tabcellsep 10.5\tabcellsep 10.5\tabcellsep 100.0\\
\tabcellsep Total\tabcellsep 19\tabcellsep 100.0\tabcellsep 100.0\tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_8}Table ( 7}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{(} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.09444444444444444\textwidth}P{0.07777777777777777\textwidth}P{0.22777777777777777\textwidth}P{0.15\textwidth}P{0.25\textwidth}P{0.049999999999999996\textwidth}}
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{3}{l}{development of a career?}\tabcellsep \\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep Frequency\tabcellsep Percent\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Valid Percent Cumulative Percent}\\
Valid\tabcellsep no\tabcellsep 16\tabcellsep 84.2\tabcellsep 88.9\tabcellsep 88.9\\
\tabcellsep 3\tabcellsep 2\tabcellsep 10.5\tabcellsep 11.1\tabcellsep 100.0\\
\tabcellsep Total\tabcellsep 18\tabcellsep 94.7\tabcellsep 100.0\tabcellsep \\
Missing\tabcellsep System\tabcellsep 1\tabcellsep 5.3\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Total\tabcellsep \tabcellsep 19\tabcellsep 100.0\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_9}Table ( 8}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{(} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.01748971193415638\textwidth}P{0.36378600823045265\textwidth}P{0.12242798353909466\textwidth}P{0.0839506172839506\textwidth}P{0.1679012345679012\textwidth}P{0.09444444444444444\textwidth}}
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep Year 2015\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep ( A )\\
\tabcellsep \multicolumn{5}{l}{9) : Do you think you have been able to balance your career with the obligations}\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{in your private life?}\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep Valid\tabcellsep \\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep Frequency\tabcellsep Percent\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Percent Cumulative Percent}\\
Valid\tabcellsep yes\tabcellsep 9\tabcellsep 47.4\tabcellsep 47.4\tabcellsep 47.4\\
\tabcellsep no\tabcellsep 6\tabcellsep 31.6\tabcellsep 31.6\tabcellsep 78.9\\
\tabcellsep To some extent\tabcellsep 4\tabcellsep 21.1\tabcellsep 21.1\tabcellsep 100.0\\
\tabcellsep Total\tabcellsep 19\tabcellsep 100.0\tabcellsep 100.0\tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
  {\small\itshape [Note: Table\hyperref[b9]{(10)} below shows that most female managers (11 out of 19) believe that men are more efficient in decision making compared to women, while only one out of 19 believed that women are more]} 
\caption{\label{tab_10}Table (}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{(} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.09145569620253165\textwidth}P{0.17215189873417722\textwidth}P{0.09683544303797467\textwidth}P{0.16139240506329114\textwidth}P{0.2582278481012658\textwidth}P{0.06993670886075949\textwidth}}
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep Frequency\tabcellsep Percent\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Valid Percent Cumulative Percent}\\
Valid\tabcellsep men\tabcellsep 11\tabcellsep 57.9\tabcellsep 61.1\tabcellsep 61.1\\
\tabcellsep women\tabcellsep 1\tabcellsep 5.3\tabcellsep 5.6\tabcellsep 66.7\\
\tabcellsep no difference\tabcellsep 6\tabcellsep 31.6\tabcellsep 33.3\tabcellsep 100.0\\
\tabcellsep Total\tabcellsep 18\tabcellsep 94.7\tabcellsep 100.0\tabcellsep \\
Missing\tabcellsep System\tabcellsep 1\tabcellsep 5.3\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Total\tabcellsep \tabcellsep 19\tabcellsep 100.0\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_11}Table ( 10}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{(} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.0956953642384106\textwidth}P{0.1294701986754967\textwidth}P{0.0956953642384106\textwidth}P{0.18013245033112582\textwidth}P{0.2758278145695364\textwidth}P{0.07317880794701986\textwidth}}
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep Frequency\tabcellsep Percent\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Valid Percent Cumulative Percent}\\
Valid\tabcellsep yes\tabcellsep 3\tabcellsep 15.8\tabcellsep 20.0\tabcellsep 20.0\\
\tabcellsep no\tabcellsep 7\tabcellsep 36.8\tabcellsep 46.7\tabcellsep 66.7\\
\tabcellsep depends\tabcellsep 5\tabcellsep 26.3\tabcellsep 33.3\tabcellsep 100.0\\
\tabcellsep Total\tabcellsep 15\tabcellsep 78.9\tabcellsep 100.0\tabcellsep \\
Missing\tabcellsep System\tabcellsep 4\tabcellsep 21.1\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Total\tabcellsep \tabcellsep 19\tabcellsep 100.0\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_12}Table ( 11}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{(} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.10946969696969697\textwidth}P{0.10303030303030303\textwidth}P{0.10946969696969697\textwidth}P{0.1803030303030303\textwidth}P{0.28977272727272724\textwidth}P{0.057954545454545446\textwidth}}
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep Frequency\tabcellsep Percent\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Valid Percent Cumulative Percent}\\
Valid\tabcellsep yes\tabcellsep 11\tabcellsep 57.9\tabcellsep 64.7\tabcellsep 64.7\\
\tabcellsep no\tabcellsep 6\tabcellsep 31.6\tabcellsep 35.3\tabcellsep 100.0\\
\tabcellsep Total\tabcellsep 17\tabcellsep 89.5\tabcellsep 100.0\tabcellsep \\
Missing\tabcellsep System\tabcellsep 2\tabcellsep 10.5\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Total\tabcellsep \tabcellsep 19\tabcellsep 100.0\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_13}Table ( 12}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{(} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.03107650643195667\textwidth}P{0.5904536222071767\textwidth}P{0.22846987136086663\textwidth}}
\tabcellsep 10. Lack of available facilities especially of teaching\\
\tabcellsep staff.\\
\tabcellsep 11. Lack of motivation in subordinates.\\
\tabcellsep 12. Balancing work and family.\\
\tabcellsep 13. To keep update of continuous developments.\\
\tabcellsep 14. Bureaucracy.\\
\tabcellsep 15. Combining teaching with managerial work at the\\
\tabcellsep same time.\\
Year 2015\tabcellsep \tabcellsep Year 2015\\
( A )\tabcellsep \tabcellsep ( A )\\
Global Journal of Human Social Science -\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{13) : Do you have a servant at home? Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent 14 73.7 73.7 73.7 5 26.3 26.3 100.0 19 100.0 100.0 The most important challenges that female Valid yes no Total managers in public universities face are as follows (ranked by importance according to interviewees): 4. Higher management do not appreciate workers, there is no appreciation for employees time or family circumstances.}\\
\tabcellsep 1. Work pressure with long working hours.\tabcellsep 5. Higher management do not clearly or accurately\\
\tabcellsep 2. Dealing with the human element, dealing with\tabcellsep know of university regulations and ordinances.\\
\tabcellsep different natures of employees and lack of\tabcellsep 6. Continuous change of university forms.\\
\tabcellsep communication skills.\tabcellsep 7. Continuous change of teaching staff.\\
\tabcellsep 3. Lack of authorization to implement what female\tabcellsep 8. Interference of higher management in the work of\\
\tabcellsep managers think as important for their departments\tabcellsep lower level managers.\\
\tabcellsep or faculties. Lack of administrative powers and\tabcellsep 9. Conflicting decisions, conflicting demands at the\\
\tabcellsep absence of financial powers.\tabcellsep same time and lack of coordination between\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep decision makers in high management levels.\\
\tabcellsep © 2015 Global Journals Inc. (US)\end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_14}Table (}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.85\textwidth}}
VI.\end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_15}}\end{figure}
 			\footnote{High managerial positions refer to vice-dean positions or higher (vice-deans, deans of faculties, vice-presidents of universities).} 			\footnote{© 2015 Global Journals Inc. (US) -} 		 		\backmatter  			 
\subsection[{Global Journals Inc. (US) Guidelines Handbook 2015}]{Global Journals Inc. (US) Guidelines Handbook 2015}\par
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