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\title{Influence of Psychoactive Substance use on Students' Self-Esteem among Nasarawa State University Undergraduate, Keffi}
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             \author[1]{Anjugu Emmanuel  John}

             \affil[1]{  Nasarawa State University}

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\date{\small \em Received: 11 September 2021 Accepted: 5 October 2021 Published: 15 October 2021}

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\begin{abstract}
        


This study examine the Influence of psychoactive substance use on students? self-esteem among Nasarawa State University Undergraduate, Keffi. 100 participants were randomly selected from four different departments of Nasarawa state university, keffi they include: Political Science Department, History Department, Christian Religious Studies Department and Geography Department out of which 50 were males and 50 were females, their age ranged from 8-40 years. The purpose of the study is to examine whether male indulge in psychoactive substance use than female, and to also investigate the degree of self-esteem of students and the possible cause of psychoactive substance use among students. Data were collected using questionnaire and chi-square statistics was used for data analysis. The result shows that; there will be a significant difference in self-esteem of male and female in the perception of substance X2=0.25; df=1; p>0.05, and Student with high self-esteem will have significantly more negative perception of psychoactive substance use than students with low self-esteem at X2=1.8; df=1; p>0.05.

\end{abstract}


\keywords{psychoactive, substance use, self-esteem.}

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\let\tabcellsep& 	 	 		 \par
Background to the Study psychoactive substance is a substance that affects the body's central nervous system (CNS) and changes how people behave or perceive what is happening around them. Psychoactive substances include illicit/illegal drugs and some medications; medications have the potential to prevent or cure disease or enhance a person's physical or mental well-being, but psychoactive medications (like those used to treat anxiety or pain) also have the potential to create problems  {\ref (Colombo Plan, 2017)}.\par
The central nervous system (CNS) is that part of the nervous system that consists of the brain and spinal cord; our brains are protected by a membrane called the "blood-brain barrier". This barrier is a series of tightly pressed-together cells that allows for the passage of only certain chemicals, because the cells of the bloodbrain barrier are so tightly pressed together, substance with a large molecular structure and that are water soluble (meaning that they dissolve easily in fluid) can't get through the barrier. Most medications we take, like aspirin or antibiotics, are in this category (Norman H.S., 2018).\par
However, psychotropic medications used to treat major mental disorders (like antipsychotics and antidepressants) are psychoactive substances; they are not abused substances because they do not produce the same immediate pleasurable effects  {\ref (Olatude, B., 2015)}.\par
In addition to their direct effects in the brain, psychoactive substances can alter the biochemical processes of body tissues and organs (Okie, S., 2018). The primary characteristics of psychoactive substances is that they alter mood, thoughts, judgment, sensory perception, and behaviour; examples of how a substance might alter mood include:\par
-Feeling more alert -Feeling more relaxed -Feeling more or less depressed than usual; -Feeling irritable or angry -Feeling more sociable -Feeling happy -Feeling more or less sexual and -Feeling fearful.\par
Examples of how a substance might alter thinking and judgment include: There are four main classes, or types, of psychoactive substance:\par
-Stimulants -Opioids (sometimes called narcotics) -Depressants and -Hallucinogens\par
These classes are based on the substance's primary effects on the CNS; stimulants increase the activity of the CNS. They tend to increase heart rate and breathing and offer a sense of excited euphoria.\par
Opioids selectively depress the CNS; these analgesics reduce pain and tend to induce sleep.\par
Depressants decrease the activity of the CNS, they tend to decrease heart rate and breathing and offer a relaxed, sometimes sleepy, sense of well-being or euphoria.\par
Hallucinogens produce a spectrum of vivid sensory distortions and markedly alter mood and thinking.\par
In a general overview, psychoactive substances produce a variety of effects, both positive and negative. These effects depend in large part on the type of substance taken. 
\section[{a) Statement of the Problem}]{a) Statement of the Problem}\par
Substance dependence falls into two broad categories. When a person compulsory uses a substance to maintain bodily comfort and physical dependence (or addiction). Exist physical dependence occurs most often with substances that cause withdrawal symptoms. Withdrawal from substances such as alcohol, barbiturate, and opiates can be extremely unpleasant. Quitting opiates for example, violent flu-like symptoms of nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, chills, sweating and cramps \hyperref[b11]{(Feldman, 2017)}. Addiction is often accompanied by a substance tolerance in which the user must take larger and larger dose to get the desired effect. Many people do not understand why or how other people became addicted to substances. It is often mistakenly assumed that psychoactive substance users lack moral principles or will power and that they could stop using substances simply by choosing to change their behavior. In reality, substance addiction is a complex disease, and quitting takes more than good intentions or strong will. In fact, because substance change the brain in ways that foster compulsive psychoactive substance use, quitting is difficult even for those who are ready to do so. Through scientific advances, we know more about how substances work in the brain than ever and we also know that substance addiction can be successfully treated to help people stop abusing substances and lead productive lives when a person develops a psychological dependence, he or she feels that a substance is necessary to maintain emotional or psychological well-being (Oloyede, 2020).\par
Usually this is based on an intense craving for the substance and its rewarding qualities  {\ref (Feldman and Querzer, 2017)}. However, psychological dependence affect a psychoactive substance user as powerful as physical addiction dose. This is why some psychologists prefer to define addiction more broadly as any compulsive habit pattern, by this definition, a person who has lost control over his or her psychoactive substance use for whatever reason, is addicted to some substances of course, have a higher potential for abuse than others. Heroin is certainly more dangerous than caffeine.\par
However, this is only one side of the picture often it is as useful to classify substance taken behavior as it is to raid substance for example, some people remain social drinkers for life; whereas others become alcoholic within weeks of taking their first drink. In this sense, psychoactive substance use can be classified as experimental (short term use on curiosity), social recreational (occasional social use for pleasure or relaxation), situation (use to cope with a specific problem such as boredom or staying awake for night work), intensive (daily use with element of dependence, or compulsive (intense use and extreme dependence) (National Commission of Marihuana and Psychoactive Substance Use, 2019).\par
Most students have low self-esteem and this has been affecting their performance negatively. Psychoactive substance use among students is on the increase and this has constituted a threat to the peace, integrity, stability and many societies as well as schools and families \hyperref[b1]{(Aduku, 2017)}. Academic performance of students varies greatly at the end of their four year program. This study aimed at finding out how school factors such as school environment, teachers, peers and home factors such as parents and parenting style, parent-adolescent relationships and demographic factors such as age, peer influence, gender and peer statuses affect the students' self-esteem in relation to their academic performance  {\ref (Berkey, 2018)}. 
\section[{b) Research Questions}]{b) Research Questions}\par
In order to have a comprehensive study of the phenomenon the researcher wishes to present the following questions: i. Why do males have low self-esteem than females under the influence of psychoactive substance use? ii. Why do people with high self-esteem indulge in psychoactive substance use? 
\section[{c) Objective of Study}]{c) Objective of Study}\par
The main aim of this research paper is not merely an academic endeavor only but most importantly to add to the existing information on the influence of psychoactive substance use on student's self-esteem policy and intervention particularly, the study aim at: i. To examine the cause of psychoactive substance use among students of Nasarawa State University, Keffi. ii. To examine the degree or level of self-esteem among male and female students of Nasarawa State University, Keffi. 
\section[{II.}]{II.} 
\section[{Literature Review}]{Literature Review}\par
This chapter introduces us to some of the theoretical review and empirical review which has to do with existing theories and empirical study that help to shape this study. 
\section[{a) Theoretical Frame Work i. Self-Theory}]{a) Theoretical Frame Work i. Self-Theory}\par
This theory was propounded by Carl roger (1959). The theory focused on the individual subjective perception of self. The world and the self-redeemed the world, Carl roger theory  {\ref (1959,} {\ref 1961)} grew out of his client centered approach to psychotherapy and behavior change. Like psychoanalysis the theory grew from effort to help trouble people but Rogers theory does not involves conflict personality structure or stages of development instead, Roger emphasized the whole of experience, the phenomenal field. This is the individual subjective frame of references. It may not correspond the external reality.\par
The theory posited that the self is an important climate in the experience and in some odd sense his goal was to become his real self. That is, self-person would like to be trouble occurs when there are mismatching or incongruence, the perceived self may not match the idea of self, and this can be very disturbing. And because we need esteem, we may distort perception of our experience in self-sinking ways.\par
In doing this, we may use condition of worth characteristic of our behavior that we may learn in childhood to associate with acceptance or disapproval. 
\section[{ii. Biological Theory}]{ii. Biological Theory}\par
The theory posited that there is some structure in the nervous system that contains nuclei and fiber traits which are related to biological sort, a desire for pleasure; hypothalamus is the organ responsible for such behavior, family history, adoption and twins. Studies suggest that genetics play a substantial role in at least some form of behaviors, which psychoactive substance use is not in absinthial  {\ref (Devor, 1994)}. The biological perspective shares some important assumption and practice, one share assumption is that behavior of both people and animals should be considered in terms of biological functioning.\par
How the individual nerve cell are joined together, how the inheritance characteristics from parents and other ancestors influence behavior, how the functioning of the body affects hopes and fear, what behavior are due to instincts. (Feldman R.S, 1997). Chromosomal inheritance and metabolic unbalance all result to behavior that has this chemicals can have direct reinforcing effect on the brain that may be intimately involved in the effect of psychoactive substances is the mesolimbic dopamine system. This system is activated by natural reward of many kinds, such as the taste of good food and the physical pleasure. Chronic use of substance may produce permanent changes in the mesolimbic dopamine system, causing craving for this substance. (Nolen its, 1998). 
\section[{iii. Behavioural Theory}]{iii. Behavioural Theory}\par
Behavioral oriented scholars subscribe to the view that all behaviors are learnt. Following from this theoretical premise, substances and behaviors are learnt in the same manner that normal behaviors are learnt. There are several theoretical explanations as to how this takes place particularly in the recognition of the role of the reinforcement in the learning process.\par
Learning is a consequence of reward, incentive or reinforcement and punishment obtained by the organism for responding to environmental demand or stimulations. Just as stated by this theory, human behavior and personality are shaped by reinforcement, psychoactive substance use behaviors are not in an exception. The tendency for one to use or abuse substances depend on reinforcement, him or she receives from the environment. (Watson, 1910). 
\section[{b) Empirical Review}]{b) Empirical Review}\par
Substance or substance abuse will be described according to psychodynamic (Freudian) theory from a developmental perspective. Psychodynamic theories believe that people vulnerable to substance abuse have powerful dependency need that can be traced to their early years (Johnson, R., 2015). They claimed that when parent failed to satisfy a young child need for nurturance, the child is likely to grow up depending on the other for help and comfort, trying to find to the nurturance that was lacking during their early years. If this search for outside support includes experimentation with substance, the person may develop a dependent relationship with the substance which they lead to substance abuse (Joane, J., 2014). Some psychodynamic theory also believes that certain people respond to their early deprivation by developing a substance abuse personality that leave them particularly prone to substance abuse. Personality inventory and patience interview have in fact indicate that people who abuse substance or dependent on substances tend to be more dependent antisocial, impulsive, nobility-seeking and depressive than other people. These findings are correlated, however, and do not clarify whether such personality traits lead to substance abuse or whether substance use cause people to be dependent, impulsive, and so on \hyperref[b8]{(Brown, 2011)}.\par
In summary, certain theories has provided a developmental view which may be helpful in understanding some of the specify traits which have been found to correlate with the abuse of alcohol and other substance. However, overall, this theoretical perspective has not provided much assistance in the everyday treatment as substance abuse  {\ref (Freud, 1856} {\ref (Freud, -1939))}. 
\section[{c) Hypotheses}]{c) Hypotheses}\par
i. There will be a significant difference in self-esteem of male and female in the perception of psychoactive substance use. ii. Students with high self-esteem will have significantly more negative perception of psychoactive substance use than students with low self-esteem. 
\section[{III.}]{III.} 
\section[{Method a) Design}]{Method a) Design}\par
A survey research method was adopted among Nasarawa State University Undergraduate, Keffi. 
\section[{b) Participants}]{b) Participants}\par
The participants of the study were sample of student of Nasarawa state university Keffi, the participants were randomly selected; all the participants in the larger students population were given equal chances to be selected for the study. The sampling techniques that was used took consideration of equal male and female participants, by distributing 100 (one hundred) questionnaires that was designed by the researcher. In other to reflect the equitable representation of the entire student's population, four department of the university were randomly selected for the study. The participant age range from (18-40) years. 
\section[{c) Instrument}]{c) Instrument}\par
Questionnaires are the major instrument that was used by the researcher for the study. The questionnaire was designed by the researcher for data collected, it contain two section A and B, the section A is made up of personal data and instruction to guide the participants on how they should full the questionnaires. Section B comprises of 19 items. The questionnaires was designed according to the liked question format, where each item have 5(five) responses which consist of "strongly disagree", "disagree", "strongly agree" and "neutral". 
\section[{d) Procedures}]{d) Procedures}\par
One hundred (100) questionnaires were administered to randomly sampled participants of the Nasarawa state university keffi, the four departments that were randomly picked are geography department, Political science department, history department and CRS department. The participants were approached in their lecture hall immediately after their lectures through the assistance of their various class captains. 
\section[{e) Statistics Used}]{e) Statistics Used}\par
Chi-square was used by the researcher for data presentation and analysis Ax2x2 factorial design. 
\section[{IV.}]{IV.} 
\section[{Results}]{Results}\par
For the purpose of this study, the data collected were analyzed and the hypotheses stated were tested using SPSS v20 (Statistical Program for Social Sciences) for more clarifications. 
\section[{a) Test of Hypotheses}]{a) Test of Hypotheses}\par
Hypothesis 1: There will with be a significant difference in self-esteem of male and female in the perception of substance.  
\section[{Field Survey, 2021}]{Field Survey, 2021}\par
The table 1 above shows the level of selfesteem of male and female. The result does not indicated statistical significant difference in the level of self-esteem of male and female: Hence the result is not significant from the table above the calculated X 2 =0.25; df=1; p>0.05.\par
Volume XXI Issue X Version I 22 ( ) Hypothesis II: Student with high self-esteem will have significantly more negative perception of psychoactive substance use than students with low self-esteem. The table 2 above revealed that people with low self-esteem indulge more in psychoactive substance use towards academic performance. Hence the result supported the hypothesis, by using chi-square analysis it was calculated thus; X 2 =1.8; df=1; p>0.05 V. 
\section[{Discussion}]{Discussion}\par
The first hypothesis state that there will be a significant difference in the self-esteem of male and female in the perception of psychoactive substance use. The result of hypothesis one on the first variable "self-esteem and sex" is revealed in table 1 and the result of table one does not show support to the hypothesis. Hence, previously documented findings that some individuals have a higher self-esteem than others do, this attribute can have a profound influence on the way they think and feel about themselves was confirmed  {\ref (Adesina S., 2015)}.\par
The second hypothesis stated that students with high self-esteem will have significantly more negative perception of psychoactive substance use that students with low self-esteem. The findings of hypothesis II is presented in tables 2 and the result of table \hyperref[tab_1]{2} shows support for the hypothesis that students with high self-esteem have negative perception of psychoactive substance use towards academic performances. This is because they have objective judgment of their actions and reactions to social demands than students with low self-esteem which are very easy to be influenced by others to do certain things. Their moral reason is low when compared with those with high self-esteem (Char, D., 2019). 
\section[{VI.}]{VI.} 
\section[{Conclusion}]{Conclusion}\par
From the foregoing analysis, one basic fact is that, its stands out, that there is a significant difference when comparing the number of students with high selfesteem and those with low self-esteem under psychoactive substance use. The two hypotheses that were tested in this study have presented the fundamental on the influence of psychoactive substance use on students' self-esteem in respect of agreement and disagreement \hyperref[b10]{(Cohen, 2019)}. The numbers of students with low self-esteem were greater than those with high self-esteem, but the result shows statistically significant because students with high self-esteem were rated low in psychoactive substance use index. Base on the difference in the self-esteem between the genders, female score low on high self-esteem while male score high in high self-esteem, however, the difference were not statistically significant because female were rated high in perception of psychoactive substance use than the male, it was concluded that female do not abuse substance like their male counterparts because of environmental, cultural expectation and the physiological effect of substance in their body system. They enjoy seeing people abusing substance, but they will not experiment because of social sanction or punishment \hyperref[b7]{(Brockner, 2018)}. 
\section[{VII.}]{VII.} 
\section[{Recommendations}]{Recommendations}\par
The findings from this research paper have led to the following recommendations.\par
i. More research should be carried out in the aspect of self-esteem and psychoactive substance use so as to cover other part. Since this study alone is not enough to make generalization about students in the whole country. ii. It would be necessary to extend such investigation to finding relationship between self-esteem and other variables such as parental socio-economic background, assertions e.t.c. in tracing the antecedents of psychoactive substance use. iii. In the university that was tested, the number of students with low self-esteem was greater than those with high self-esteem, the gap of the difference is too bad, it implies that the school should have room for improvement in this area.\par
There should be a conscious effort to make this an essential part of schools. To operate and enhance students self-esteem and telling them the danger associated to psychoactive substance use. \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{1} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.4557971014492754\textwidth}P{0.12318840579710146\textwidth}P{0.04927536231884058\textwidth}P{0.2217391304347826\textwidth}}
Gender\tabcellsep X 2\tabcellsep Df\tabcellsep P=0.05\\
Self-esteem/sex\tabcellsep 0.25\tabcellsep 1\tabcellsep Not Sig.\\
Psychoactive/sex\tabcellsep 4.6\tabcellsep 1\tabcellsep Sig.\end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_0}Table 1 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{2} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.6705555555555555\textwidth}P{0.056666666666666664\textwidth}P{0.028333333333333332\textwidth}P{0.09444444444444444\textwidth}}
Academic Performance\tabcellsep X 2\tabcellsep df\tabcellsep P=0.05\\
Psychoactive/academic performance\tabcellsep 1.8\tabcellsep 1\tabcellsep Sig.\\
Field survey, 2021\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_1}Table 2 :}\end{figure}
 			\footnote{© 2021 Global Journals Volume XXI Issue X Version I 21 ( )} 			\footnote{Influence of Psychoactive Substance use on Students' Self-Esteem among Nasarawa State University Undergraduate, Keffi} 		 		\backmatter  			 \par
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