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\title{PERMA-based Perspectives on Sports -Designing New Ways To Support Well-Being In Finnish Junior Ice hockey Players}
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             \author[1]{Satu  Uusiautti}

             \affil[1]{  University of Lapland}

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\date{\small \em Received: 7 December 2016 Accepted: 1 January 2017 Published: 15 January 2017}

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\begin{abstract}
        


Ice hockey is a very popular hobby among Finnish boys. However, there are concerns over these young athletes? well-being. In this article, we discuss the offerings of positive psychology to sports. How to use positive and strength-based approaches to enhance well-being and joy of playing among junior ice hockey players? We introduce our ideas based on the development work in collaboration with the Finnish Ice Hockey Association and our earlier research on the theme. Martin Seligman?s PERMA theory serves as the theoretical basis of our research. According to the theory, well-being is construct of five elements: positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment, that we operationalize into practices to be used in junior ice hockey. The theoretical review shows that operationalizing the PERMA theory offers a fruitful way of combining the scientific and theoretical expertise with the knowledge about ice hockey (or any sports) in practice. Our goal is to achieve significant results and success stories that do not only tell about success in sports such as ice hockey, but as positive development as players and persons in general.

\end{abstract}


\keywords{positive psychology, perma, well-being, ice hockey, coaching, Finland, positive development.}

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\let\tabcellsep& 	 	 		 
\section[{I.}]{I.}\par
inland is one of the top countries in ice hockey, and the sport is, indeed, the most popular one among the Finns. However, our research group was contacted by junior ice hockey coaches who expressed their concern over Finnish boys' performance-oriented, (too) serious attitudes toward playing, attrition, and other problems showing the malaise among young men. Even though this contact was somewhat surprising to us, we knew that joyless labor in direction of goals in sports had been noted already decades ago to be a feature common to especially boys and men (e.g., \hyperref[b12]{Duda, 1988}; see also \hyperref[b7]{Curran, Hill, Hall, \& Jowett, 2015)}. The basis of our viewpoint lays in positive psychology that offers positive and strength-based approaches to various areas of life and are already somewhat known in sports for example in the USA and Australia (Wu, 2014)-but have not yet found their way in the Finnish coaching culture. In this article, we will introduce our ideas based on the development work in collaboration with the Finnish Ice Hockey Association and our earlier research on the theme \hyperref[b41]{(Leskisenoja, 2016;}\hyperref[b42]{2017}  \hyperref[b41]{Leskisenoja, 2016)}.\par
The relevance of our research does not only emerge from coaches' notions and practical experiences, but also from wide well-being surveys (see e.g., National Institute for Health and Welfare, 2015; OECD, 2016) show that especially the well -being level among boys is continuously worrying. In Finland, the differences in well-being between girls and boys have actually increased meaning that boys perform worse at school, do not engage to education as well as girls, and are in greater danger of dropping out and exclusion. On the other hand, having a sportive hobby gives a better chance to find sources of well-being in life: infrequent participation in sports, a low grades in school sports, and poor school achievements in adolescence are associated with physical inactivity in adulthood \hyperref[b93]{(Tammelin et al., 2003)}. Youth sport participation is connected with several general indicators of development, including identity development, personal exploration, initiative, improved cognitive and physical skills, cultivating social connections, teamwork and social skills \hyperref[b27]{(Hansen, Larson, \& Dworkin, 2003}; see also \hyperref[b38]{Lerner, 2009}). In addition, socio-economic statuses influence our participation in sports: while low income may prevent participation in costly hobbies, studies have also shown differences in reasons for choosing a hobby \hyperref[b33]{(Laakso et al., 2006)}. Those with low education are more likely to find team spirit, excitement provided by sports, and experiences of success that take place outside the school environment important while those with high education may find health effects the most important reason for sports \hyperref[b2]{(Borodulin, 2008)}.\par
At the level of junior ice hockey where players are around age 10-13 years old, the lack of well-being oriented training may actually lead to negative development, stress, and for example, decrease in selfesteem  {\ref (}  
\section[{Introduction}]{Introduction}\par
when we think about team sports, such as ice hockey, the social element becomes even more critical: at its best, a team sport can support the development of social skills \hyperref[b16]{(Ferguson \& Shapiro, 2016;}\hyperref[b66]{Merkel, 2013)}, and team spirit, friendships, and membership in a group \hyperref[b17]{(Fletcher, Nickerson, \& Wright, 2003;}\hyperref[b55]{Mahoney, Larson, Eccles, \& Lord, 2005;}\hyperref[b66]{Merkel, 2013)}. Having a sportive hobby prevents exclusion \hyperref[b80]{(Roberts, 2004;}\hyperref[b87]{Saunders, 2008)}. In addition, organized sports activities include many factors enhancing positive development, such as increased visioning, self-efficacy, and initiative \hyperref[b67]{(Murphy \& Johnson, 2011)}. These skills and abilities are important for the future. And yet, the various elements of well-being from a positive psychological perspective are still less studied in the context of junior sports (cf. \hyperref[b104]{Wu, 2014)}.\par
The purpose of the Finnish Ice Hockey Association is to develop coaching so that it would enhance children and youth's holistic development as persons, athletes, and ice hockey players. The impact of supportive relationships with adults and role models are essential in bringing about positive developmental outcomes  {\ref (} However, knowledge about positive development and well-being is needed. Our purpose is to approach this gap in research. According to our understanding, methods that can enhance the development of wellbeing skills in leisure activities may well be the best way of helping all children in many ways \hyperref[b9]{(Donaldson \& Ronan, 2006;}\hyperref[b22]{Gadermann et al., 2016;}\hyperref[b41]{Leskisenoja, 2016;}\hyperref[b65]{Mcmahon et al., 2017)}. A research-based approach to promote well-being in children outside school environment and inside those contexts that matter to children during their voluntary free-time activities can show a way of influencing a great number of children and make participation in sports more meaningful also to those children who have not find them interesting or valuable to them earlier.  {\ref In}  Training psychology can also refer to the training of psychological skills that are needed in sports-related mental stress situations \hyperref[b47]{(Lintunen et al., 2012)}.\par
As physical training, also psychological training happens in daily practices \hyperref[b103]{(Weinberg \& Gould, 2007)}. \hyperref[b47]{Lintunen et al. (2012)} divide psychological training into \hyperref[b0]{(1)} training that supports mental well-being, (2) teaching of mental skills or techniques, and (3) treatment of mental problems. The ultimate goal is to provide a mental basis for high performances in sports, which is the main difference between training psychology and sport psychology. \hyperref[b61]{Matikka (2012)} defines that sport psychology is interested in human behavior in sports without the purpose of high achievements (see also \hyperref[b6]{Cox, 2012;}\hyperref[b10]{Driskell, Copper, \& Moran, 1994)}.\par
However, the elements of positive psychology are just about to come a part of sports and training. Next, we will introduce some of the useful viewpoints that help understanding the basis of positive human behaviors and development in this sense.\par
First, well-being can be viewed from the perspective of one's agency in volitional doing, selfdetermination \hyperref[b102]{(Wehmeyer, Little, \& Sergeant, 2009)}. Participation in physical training is this kind of area of human agency where the sense of personal empowerment is at the core in terms of "knowing and having what it takes to achieve goals"  {\ref (Wehmeyer et al., 2009, p. 357}). In \hyperref[b81]{Ryan and Deci's (2000a;}\hyperref[b83]{2000b)} wellknown self-determination theory, the main basic psychological needs of competence, autonomy, and relatedness occur positively or negatively based on the level of support one receives from one's social context (see also \hyperref[b45]{Little et al., 2002)}. Recent research has added constructs of positive psychology, such as hope and life\par
We will describe this theoretical approach in greater detail in the next chapter. Then, our purpose is to explore more closely Seligman's (2011) well-being theory called "PERMA" and its possible application in sports. The main question this article will answer is as follow: What are the theoretical prerequisites of enhancing well-being through sports by applying the PERMA theory? satisfaction, to self-determination research \hyperref[b102]{(Wehmeyer et al., 2009}). In the field of sports research, selfdetermination theory is mainly used for exploring the nature of positive motivational states in sports and physical education in schools (e.g., Hagger \& Chatzisarantis, 2007; \hyperref[b101]{Wang et al., 2002)}.\par
Duckworth (2016) has also been interested in what makes people determined and successful in what they are doing. She concluded that high achievers have high levels of passion and perseverance, and created the GRIT theory that illustrates that to be successful, something more than just talent is required (cf. also \hyperref[b35]{Lahti, 2014)}. Sport-specific engagement is related to how "gritty" athletes are (see Larkin, O'Connor, \& Williams, 2016).\par
In addition to determination, passion, perseverance, and talent, success in sports requires athlete engagement, a specific concept describing engagement in sports. Here, the coaches' role can be quite extraordinary, as Curran et al.'s (2015) study showed. They studied how coach behaviors could enhance positive experiences in youth sport by examining relationships between the motivational climate and athlete engagement. Engagement was described with positive states such as confidence, dedication, enthusiasm, and vigor. Positive support for engagement is, therefore, crucial but for those, who strive for perfect performances, athlete engagement can turn into negative spiral leading to, for example, burnout \hyperref[b31]{(Jewitt et al., 2016)}.\par
In her research, Dweck (2012) identified two distinct ways in which people view their talents and abilities. Individuals with a fixed mindset believe that their talents and abilities are static and fixed -people are born with a certain amount of intelligence or strength, and there is little they can do to change this. In this mindset, athletes may become so concerned with being and looking talented that they never achieve their full potential \hyperref[b14]{(Dweck, 2009)}. In contrast, a growth mindset corresponds with the belief that the talent and abilities can be developed and that effort, practice and instruction are essential components of success \hyperref[b15]{(Dweck, 2012)}. Research has shown that a growth mindset fosters a healthier attitude toward practice and learning, a hunger for feedback, a greater ability to deal adversity and setbacks and better performance and psychological wellness over time (e.g. Dweck, 2012; Golby \& Wood, 2016; Rattan, Savani, Chugh, \& Dweck, 2015; \hyperref[b105]{Yeager et al., 2016)}. Coaches' mindsets matter as well. A growth mindset coaches present sport skills as acquirable, value passion and effort, foster teamwork and team spirit and present themselves as mentors, not just talent judges \hyperref[b14]{(Dweck, 2009)}. College soccer players who believed that their success was a result of effort and practice performed better over the next season. Athletes who thought that their coaches prized effort and hard work more than natural ability were even more likely to have a superior season \hyperref[b13]{(Dweck, 2007)}.\par
The aforementioned theories introduce various positively oriented viewpoints to sports. They analyze the relationship between certain human strengths and characteristics and their performances and development in sports. As we can see, the fundamental idea in these illustrations is how to enhance people's performances in sports, how to make them succeed better and better, and how to achieve top performances. Now, although we realize, too, that sports is about performing and that those who seriously train are mainly interested in how to improve their performances. However, we take a different stand on sports here: by applying a holistic theory of well-being, our purpose is to increase young (and older) people's flourishing-which will include better performances, too, but the main focus is on the balanced development as a person and as an athlete. In the next chapter, we will describe this theoretical approach. 
\section[{III. How to use Perma in Sports?}]{III. How to use Perma in Sports?}\par
Seligman's (2011) well-being theory is about the foundations of human flourishing that can happen in anyone and in any area of life. Thus, it provides a perspective to flourishing in sports without limiting it within the traditional sports psychological approaches or having a goal-centered and performance-oriented focus (see \hyperref[b104]{Wu, 2014)}. This is important to our research because the ultimate purpose is to provide childrenthrough their ice hockey or other sports hobby-with skills of well-being that promote their success not only in sports but other areas of life in a healthy way.\par
The PERMA theory serves as the theoretical basis of our research among junior ice hockey players and their coaches (see also \hyperref[b41]{Leskisenoja, 2016} ). On the other hand, sport participation seems to be an excellent way to experience psychosocial health, well-being and general quality of life \hyperref[b0]{(Allender, Cowburn, \& Foster, 2006;}\hyperref[b17]{Fletcher, Nickerson, \& Wright, 2003;}\hyperref[b66]{Merkel, 2013)}. Positive emotions are also connected to positive relationships and positive atmosphere, which are quite significant for success and thriving in sports \hyperref[b3]{(Carr, 2011)}.\par
Our purpose is to operationalize Seligman's (2011) PERMA theory into practices to be used in sports, in this case in junior ice hockey. When it comes to positive emotions, the following scientifically measurable practices would be suitable: What went well -practices, gratitude rituals, savoring, three funny things or counting funny things, optimistic attributional styles and thinking, acts of kindness, humoristic spurring before games, smile and laugh -practices, and disputing negative thinking. 
\section[{b) Engagement}]{b) Engagement}\par
Engagement in sports appears as dedication and concentration, but also the opportunity to use and develop one's strength \hyperref[b90]{(Seligman, 2011;}\hyperref[b104]{Wu, 2014)}. They are also connected closely with meaning (see later in this article). When doing is pleasurable, it can lead to the total absorption also called as flow  {\ref (Csikszentmihalyi, 2008)}. Flow is typically experienced in clearly structured activities in which the level of challenge and skill can be varied and controlled, such as sport. Drane and Barber (2016) noticed that a sports hobby that makes flow experiences possible is important especially in adolescence when engagement to schoolwork might not be that strong or first priority to everyone. Lately, the interest in mindfulness-based interventions has increased in sport psychology. Mindfulness teaches athletes to be present, focusing only on stimuli that immediately affect their performance \hyperref[b18]{(Ford, Wyckoff, \& Sherlin, 2016)}, and thus increases engagement.\par
Engagement as presented in Seligman's (2011) PERMA theory can be operationalized into sports as follows: strengths spotting, mindfulness practices in training and game situations, and breathing practices. The flow theory provides practices such as balancing goals and abilities in training. 
\section[{c) Relationships}]{c) Relationships}\par
How people perceive themselves and their relationship with their surrounding environment depends on the interaction that takes place in their social environment where they grow and develop  {\ref (Berscheid, 2002;}\hyperref[b3]{Carr, 2011)}. It is not surprising that people who have formed and maintained satisfactory relationships seem to be happier than those who has not succeeded in this  {\ref (Berscheid, 2002)}.\par
Especially in team sports, relationships have an important role. Collaboration and mutual support can have a positive effect on an individual's performance and feelings \hyperref[b104]{(Wu, 2014)}. Team spirit sense of belonging, positive interaction, and mutual spurring can be practiced through various methods. The relationships element of PERMA theory \hyperref[b90]{(Seligman, 2011}) can be operationalized for example into following practices: caring coaching, acts of kindness, active constructive responding, social events, team building, team rituals, team camps, and team spirit moments. Not only strengthen they team spirit but also provide opportunities to train social and emotional skills (e.g., support, respect, praise, open communication, peer reinforcement, and noticing good in team members). 
\section[{d) Meaning}]{d) Meaning}\par
People have various reasons for engaging to sports. For some, it provides a way to relax, keep in good shape, or meet friends, for others it is a way of self-fulfillment and can even become a career. Whatever the reason, finding exercising meaningful is crucial for well-being. As we mentioned, signature strengths are a part of our fundamental identity; when using them, we feel being ourselves (Niemiec, 2014). These strengths are positive and teachable \hyperref[b74]{(Peterson \& Seligman, 2004)}, and they are considered the sources of satisfactory, happy, and successful life. Many of these, such as hope, perseverance, creativity and zest, provide sport participants a great opportunity to improve performance and enjoyment (Yeager, Fisher, \& Shearon, 2011). Salmela (2016; see also \hyperref[b86]{Salmela \& Uusiautti, 2015)} points out how various definitions of human strengths share the view that strengths are positive characteristics that tell about the person's best qualities, and how using these strengths causes emotions of joy and excitement, and sense of meaning (Linley, Willars, \& Biswas-Diener, 2010; \hyperref[b77]{Rath, 2007;}\hyperref[b89]{Seligman, 2002)}.\par
Meaning can be operationalized into practices that help recognizing strengths and using them: strengths spotting, team shirts of strengths, and identification of the team's shared strengths. In addition, strategies of autonomy-supportive coaching  {\ref (Conroy \& Coatsworth, 2007}) may increase the sense of meaning in sports. 
\section[{e) Accomplishment}]{e) Accomplishment}\par
In sports, and especially when referring to voluntary leisure activities, achievements may and should not get the priority among young players. In general, however, achieving goals is important to human beings' well-being \hyperref[b90]{(Seligman, 2011)}. In sports, the achievements of small goals rather than long-term pursuit to top scores tend to be more beneficial (e.g., \hyperref[b8]{Debois et al., 2012;}\hyperref[b24]{Gillham \& Weiler, 2013)} achieving these goals as well as constant personal support and feedback about performances \hyperref[b103]{(Weinberg \& Gould, 2007)}. Training diaries can be helpful, too (see \hyperref[b6]{Cox, 2012)}. Accomplishments as the element of well-being in PERMA \hyperref[b90]{(Seligman, 2011}) can be included in positive training through practices such as goal setting (individual/team; long-term/short term; monitoring; rewarding progress), clear expectations, mindset, grit, perseverance, reliance, self-control, positive feedback, praise, support, and success celebrations. 
\section[{IV.}]{IV.}\par
Discussion: why to use Perma in Sports?\par
The need for research-based activities to promote well-being is evident . According to  {\ref Martindale, Collings, \& Daubney (2005)}, the closer the different areas of sports-tactical, physical, psychological, etc. training-become intertwined the more likely will they influence positively on the athletes' training. This is an expectation that PERMA-based intervention in sports could meet, also because it pays attention to the sense of meaning in doing. For example, \hyperref[b70]{Newman and Crespo (2008)} discovered in their research among tennis players that if training was considered personally meaningful, players also found it motivating and engaging. Including elements in sports that make exercising meaningful in many levels is likely to provide young athletes better grounds for success in sports and also other areas in life.\par
This kind of holistic approach is crucial despite the preliminary understanding that youngsters who actively participate in sports show high levels of wellbeing, develop as active citizens, and lead healthy lives (Biddle \& Asare, 2011; \hyperref[b9]{Donaldson \& Ronan, 2006;}\hyperref[b93]{Tammelin et al., 2003)}. The contact with junior ice hockey coaches proved otherwise and aroused the question of how to make various sports appealing and beneficial to all children, and not just for those are naturally interested in and good at sports, and thus experiencing successes and positive emotions through their sport hobby. Ultimately, the goal should be to make physical activities pleasing, interesting, and available for all children. If PERMA-based methods make sports more appealing, we will take an important step toward meaningful leisure activities.\par
One of the main questions is then to have positive adult interactions in youth sports, especially from coaches (see also \hyperref[b7]{Curran et al., 2015)}. Without the help of the coach or trainer, well-being skills cannot be learned in the daily training (e.g., Gearity \& Murray, 2011)-but to do that, coaches need to have practical knowledge of possible and suitable methods that they can use in their work. Coaches are the keys of successful teaching of well-being skills, and they are also very important people in these youngsters' lives  {\ref (} Indeed, our ultimate purpose is to address the concerning fact that boys' success in school and engagement to schoolwork has been decreasing, and already every fifth Finnish young man is outside education and employment (OECD, 2016). To ensure a better future, this negative development has to be stopped  {\ref (}   \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.7349344978165939\textwidth}P{0.11506550218340612\textwidth}}
II.\tabcellsep Well-Being based theoretical\\
\tabcellsep Approaches to Sports\\
\tabcellsep Research has showed that positive experiences\\
\multicolumn{2}{l}{are connected to success in various areas of life (Cohn}\\
\multicolumn{2}{l}{\& Fredrickson, 2009; Hyvärinen, 2016; Lopez, Teramoto}\\
\multicolumn{2}{l}{Pedrotti, \& Snyder, 2015; Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, \&}\\
\multicolumn{2}{l}{Schkade, 2005; Mahoney et al., 2005; Määttä \&}\\
\multicolumn{2}{l}{Uusiautti, 2012; 2017; Uusiautti \& Määttä, 2015),}\\
\multicolumn{2}{l}{including sports. In order to find physical activities}\\
\multicolumn{2}{l}{pleasurable and meaningful, people need successes}\\
\multicolumn{2}{l}{and positive emotions}\\
their own\tabcellsep \\
hobby environment, children are presumably more\tabcellsep \\
interested, open, and receptive to the contents of well-\tabcellsep \\
being focused methods and practices than, for\tabcellsep \\
example, in schools (see e.g., Barker \& Weller, 2003)\tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_2}}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.85\textwidth}}
Year 2017\\
34\\
Volume XVII Issue II Version I\\
( A )\\
Global Journal of Human Social Science -\end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_4}}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.45535714285714285\textwidth}P{0.1669642857142857\textwidth}P{0.09107142857142857\textwidth}P{0.07589285714285714\textwidth}P{0.06071428571428571\textwidth}}
This\tabcellsep theoretical\tabcellsep review\tabcellsep shows\tabcellsep that\\
\multicolumn{2}{l}{operationalizing the PERMA}\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_5}}\end{figure}
 			\footnote{© 2017 Global Journals Inc. (US)} 			\footnote{PERMA-Based Perspectives on Sports -Designing New Ways To Support Well-Being In Finnish Junior Ice hockey Players} 		 		\backmatter  			  				\begin{bibitemlist}{1}
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\end{document}
