he phenomenon of indecent work has emerged as a front-burner issue before the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the governments of member countries, when viewed in terms of the number of conventions and guidelines on labour standards and fair employment that has been adopted and endorsed over the years. Regrettably, the level of compliance with the ideals of decent work is very low. The low compliance level by the employers and governments to the guidelines on decent work poses serious existential threats to profits, plants, and people (3Ps) including the attainment of the sustainable development goal (SDG) if not systematically redressed. A reliable report indicated that the global economy faces extreme, poverty, slower growth, climate change, widening inequalities, unemployment, and growing indecent work, but the situation is worse in Sub-Saharan Africa where more than 204 million people are unemployed in 2015, and the worsening unemployment situation provided breeding grounds for forced labour, slavery and human trafficking (UNDP, 2020).

Additionally, the report of World Bank (2019b) identified extreme poverty, growing public debt/debt risk, slow growth of the labour market, rising labour force, and gender disparities as the critical inhibiting factors holding back economic growth and sustainable development in Sub-Saharan Africa.

In the midst of the economic crisis explicated above, the youth population is the hardest hit, as young men and women driven by hunger, hopelessness, and haplessness are forced to accept non-standard employment with poor conditions of service in the developing countries (Shehu and Nilsson, 2014). Similarly, Sparreboom and Staneva (2014) reported that the vulnerable young people are the worst hit by the global economic crisis, when viewed from five areas, namely: (i) the young people have a higher unemployment rate, (ii) young people take up lowerquality jobs, (iii) they suffer greater labour market inequalities, (iv) the young people have longer and more insecure school to-work transitions, and (v) the young people have more increased detachment from the labour market.

To sustainably redress the institutional challenges to economic development in the world, the International Labour Organisation had long identified a decent work as an ideal that is central to sustainable poverty reduction and an effective means for achieving equitable, inclusive and sustainable development (ILO, 2013). Similarly, the United Nations conceived the sustainable development goals (SDGs), specifically, Goal 8 is dedicated to a transition to decent work and economic growth. To forestall ambiguity in understanding, the ILO explained that work qualifies to be described as decent when three objectives engrained and ensured the authorities: the need for jobs, the honouring of core labour standards, and the pursuit of further improvements in job quality (Fields, 2003).

The decent work agenda as featured consistently as part of international guidelines on employment and labour standards for many years. It was mentioned in the UN Charter of 1945 (MacNaughton & Frey, 2018). The 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights Charter emphasized decent work including economic, social, and cultural rights (Association of Human Rights (2011). Also, ILO's 1998 Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work articulated the need to promote principles and rights to decent work in four categories, namely: (i) freedom of association and the effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining, (ii) the elimination of forced or compulsory labour, (iii) the abolition of child labour and (iv) the elimination of discrimination in respect of employment and occupation (ILO, 2020). In 1999, the ILO adopted a new industrial relations strategy that is premised on four strategic objectives: (a) full employment, (b) improved levels of socio-economic security, (c) universal respect for fundamental principles and rights at work, and (d) the strengthening of social dialogue (Fields, 2003). The millennium development goals (MDGs) incorporated decent work as a new target of MDGs in 2007. The 1999 UN Global Compact also integrated four core labour standards of ILO as part of its nine-point principles (UN Global Compact, 2014). Furthermore, the ILO at the international Tripartite Meeting of Experts in 2008 adopted the Decent Work Indicators with ten substantive elements (ILO, 2013). The European Union similarly engrained the ILO's four core labour standards into its revised OECD Guidelines for multinational enterprises: Global instruments for corporate responsibility ( (Fields, 2003;OECD, 2000).

As laudable as the past efforts on the adoption of ILO's labour standards on decent work are, the phenomenon of unfair labour practices continues in the global workplaces because there is a disconnection between the norms espoused under the Decent Work Agenda and the tangible implications of interventions the African, Caribbean, and Pacific (ACP) countries (Langan, 2014). The ineffective implementation of the various guidelines on decent work is an indication that beyond the development of guidelines and standards on decent work at organizational, national and international levels, there is a need for a strong ethical climate for the implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of these guidelines. Moreover, the absence of the ethical climate is further worsened by the avoidable constraints posed by inadequate labour administration, especially inadequate staff with sufficient expertise to enforce the guidelines on decent work and labour standards in the informal economy .

Based on the foregoing, there exists a knowledge gap to be filled with regards to the state of decent work' in Sub-Saharan Africa, and what strategies could be put in place to achieve decent work the stimulates economic growth by the year 2030 in the continent. This paper discusses the imperative of transition to decent work and economic growth (SDG 8) in Sub-Saharan Africa. Specifically, the study intends to answers to the following questions: (a) What is the state of decent work in Sub-Saharan Africa? (b) What is the state of economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa?

There are seven sections in this chapter contribution. Section 1 provides a concise introductory background on the macro-economic challenges hindering decent work agenda. Section 2 presents the adopted methods and analysis. Section 3 critically discusses the concept of decent work and its measurements in the literature. Section 4 narratively explores the Spatio-Temporal analysis of international guidelines on decent work from 1945 to 2016. Section 5 discusses economic growth. Section 6 presents the results/findings of the study. Section 7 discusses the conclusions, practical/managerial implications, and policy recommendations.

This paper adopts a mixed research method with a preference for secondary data (qualitative and quantitative). The required qualitative data were extracted from the selection of scholarly works on decent work and economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa. To ensure academic rigour and objectivity in the selection of these scholarly works, a sample of 50 relevant scholarly works on decent work were purposively selected for the Google Scholar database. However, the quantitative secondary data on the gross domestic product (GDP), percentage of unemployed males and females in the labour force, and percentage of males and females in vulnerable employment were sourced from the World Bank Database spanning 10 years (2000 -2019). The qualitative information from scholarly works was analyzed using a critical literature review (CLR). The CLR is the systematic and objective analysis and evaluation of scholarly articles on a specific subject matter for the purpose of developing new insights, richer findings, and enriched understanding about the subject of inquiry (Saunders and Rojon 2011; Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2012). The quantitative data were however analyzed descriptively using tables and percentages. The meaningful findings that emerged from both methods. To ensure some degree of academic rigour and objectivity in the selection of scholarly works, a sample of 50 relevant scholarly works on decent work were purposively selected, analyzed and evaluated on the basis of which findings and prescriptions were made on the imperative of transition to decent work and economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa.

The term decent work is better explained than defined. A number of definitions abound in the industrial relations and personnel management literature on this front-burner concept. Decent work refers to an adequate opportunity for employees to work, equitable remuneration in cash and kind, including safety in the workplace and healthy working conditions. The first two components of decent work (adequate opportunity and remuneration) are social security components, while the two others (safety at workplace and healthy workplace) are the social relations component of decent work (Ghai, 2003).

Decent work measurements have been widely discussed in the literature for several decades. At a point in time, the decent work measurements focus on workplace outcomes, specifically: what kinds of work people are assigned, how remuneration is determined including security of the work, and what rights workers enjoy in their workplace (Fields, 2003). The International Labour Organization (ILO) after an international Tripartite Meeting of Experts on the Measurement of Decent Work in 2008 adopted a framework of Decent Work Indicators with ten substantive elements as veritable measurements that include: (i) full and productive employment, (ii) rights at work, social protection, and the promotion of social dialogue): employment opportunities; adequate earnings and productive work; decent working time; combining work, family and personal life; work that should be abolished; stability and security of work; equal opportunity and treatment in employment; safe work environment; social security; and, social dialogue, employers' and workers' representation (ILO, 2013).

As laudable as the framework on decent work indicators/measurements are, it requires an ethical climate for its implementation, monitoring, and evaluation.

An ethical climate incorporates an organization's working environment, ethical consequences of organizational issues, policies, procedures and practices .) and extends to the application of organizational policies and procedures and execution of ethical standards to reward ethical activities and sanction unethical conduct (Schwepker, 2001;. Related to the point above, the UN Global Compact principles 3, 4, 5 and 6 also emphasized the need for decent work globally. Specifically, the 3 rd the principle stated that businesses operating across the glove should uphold the freedom of association and the effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining; the 4 th principle emphasized the need for corporate leaders to eliminate all forms of forced and compulsory labour; the 5 th principle emphasized the need for effective abolition of child labour; and 6 th principle recommended the need to eliminate discrimination in respect of employment and occupation (UN Global Compact, 2014, p.6).

IV.

Having understood the definition of decent work, this section examines how decent work agenda has consistently been discussed, endorsed, and adopted over-the-years by the international community. As far back as 1945 post-world war period, the need for a decent work was consistently pursued. Specifically, the UN Charter of 1945 articulated the ideals of decent work through the promotion of "higher standards of living, full employment, and conditions of economic and social progress and development" including respect for, and recognition of human and basic rights of workers (MacNaughton & Frey, 2018; Association of Human rights, 2019). The 1945 Charter was mere pronouncement with very low compliance in the world of work and among member nations of the UN.

In 1948, the imperative of decent work was relaunched and firmly enshrined as part of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights Charter. The new Charter guarantees protection of the person, and provides classical freedom and rights such as freedom of expression, as well as economic, social, and cultural rights. The rights apply to all people irrespectively of their race, gender, and nationality, as all people are born free and equal (Association of Human Rights (2011). The Declaration elicits cooperation of governments and businesses as critical segments of the society for enforcement. The businesses are particularly vested with the responsibility to promote respect of the human rights of their employees with regards to decent work particularly on issues of core labour standards, management of security forces, and indigenous peoples' rights (OECD, 2001).

Another important progress on the promotion of decent work was the adoption in 1998 the ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work. The Declaration elicits from the member states to respect and promote principles and rights to decent work in four categories, namely: (i) freedom of association and the effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining, (ii) the elimination of forced or compulsory labour, (iii) the abolition of child labour and (iv) the elimination of discrimination in respect of employment and occupation (ILO, 2020).

Furthermore, the ILO in 1999 adopted a new industrial relations goal christened "Decent Work for All". The decent work agenda is the creation of not just jobs, but jobs of acceptable quality. The actualization of this laudable the objective is premised on four strategic objectives: (a) full employment, (b) improved levels of socio-economic security, (c) universal respect for fundamental principles and rights at work, and (d) the strengthening of social dialogue (Fields, 2003). From public health perspective, scholars emphasized that promoting fair employment and decent work as parts of the daily living conditions impact positively on human health (MacNaughton & Frey, 2018).

Beyond the agenda of the United Nations on decent work, the European Union member countries reinforced extant policies and standards on decent work by incorporating ILO's four core labour standards into its revised OECD Guidelines for multinational enterprises:

Global instruments for corporate responsibility ( (Fields, 2003;OECD, 2000). The OECD Guidelines are essentially nine recommendations on codes of conduct covering nine areas of business conduct that the governments elicit voluntary compliance from the multinational enterprises (OECD, 2001).

The millennium development goals (MDGs) adopted in 2000 also recognized decent work as a worthwhile agenda. According to ILO (2020b), the UN incorporated decent work as a new target of MDGs in 2007. The UN believed that decent work ideals of full and productive employment for men, women and young people represent one of the potent means for fighting poverty foundationally (MDG 1). For MDG 2, it is believed that achieving universal primary education is premised on (a) children having access to education as well as freedom from child labour, and (b) supporting the rights of teachers and fostering labour conditions that would motivate them to provide quality education. With regards to achieving gender equality (MDG 3), there is a need to have decent work policies that promote equal opportunities for women to access employment, social protection, and training. Similarly, decent work agenda support MDGs 4 and 5 fundamentally because of compliance by employers with international labour standards, the promotion of social protection such as maternity leave and the ability to reach women in the workplace all play a crucial role in reducing child mortality (MDG 4) and in improving maternal health (MDG 5). Decent work incorporates the need for employers and governments to promote HIV/AIDS prevention policies and raising awareness in the workplace for the purpose of combating HIV/AIDS (MDG 6). Decent work agenda aligns with the call to adapt to climate change, as decent work and labour standards have a strong link to environmental sustainability (MDG 7). Adopting the ideas of decent work by all strategic actors can help forge a global partnership for development (MDG 8) that would accelerate the progress toward better living and working conditions for all.

Furthermore, the International Labour Organisation reviewed the state of "Decent Work for All" in order to improve the wellness of employees across the globe. Consequently, at the international Tripartite Meeting of Experts on the Measurement of Decent Work in 2008, the Decent Work Indicators was adopted. The Decent Work Indicators has the following ten substantive elements: (i) full and productive employment, (ii) rights at work, social protection and the promotion of social dialogue): employment opportunities; adequate earnings and productive work; decent working time; combining work, family and personal life; work that should be abolished; stability and security of work; equal opportunity and treatment in employment; safe work environment; social security; and, social dialogue, employers' and workers' representation (ILO, 2013).

Related to the point above, the United Nations integrated four core labour standards of ILO into the nine-point Global Compact that was launched in January 1999. The UN Global Compact is a blueprint for promoting the shared values and principles of the United Nations regarding issues of human rights, labour (including decent work) and the environment among business groups, individual companies, organized labour, and non-governmental organizations (Fields, 2003). The 3, 4, 5 and 6 principles of the UN Global Compact promote the need for decent work globally. Specifically, the 3 rd principle stated that businesses operating across the glove should uphold the freedom of association and the effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining; 4 th principle emphasized the need for corporate leaders to eliminate of all forms of forced and compulsory labour; 5 th principle emphasized the need for effective abolition of child labour; and 6 th principle recommended the need to eliminate discrimination in respect of employment and occupation (UN Global Compact, 2014, p.6).

At the expiration of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the United Nations adopted the sustainable development goals (SDGs) in September 2015, as a new development blueprint that builds on the success of MDGs across the globe. It was officially launched on 1 January 2016 with the recommendation to member countries to take ownership of the SDGs and establish national frameworks for the achievement of the 17 Goals (United Nations, 2018). The SDGs is an all-inclusive sustainable development blueprint to be implemented and tracked for the next fifteen by the international community at the national and international levels (Raimi, Adelopo and Yusuf, 2019). Table 1 below provides a tabular summary of the Spatio-temporal trends of the decent work agenda. Access to justice for all, and building effective, accountable institutions at all levels. Goal 17

Partnerships for the Goals Revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development.

V. Economic Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa

The term economic growth has been defined as the measure of the change of GDP from one year to the next. In most development literature, economic growth is functionally measured by GDP in US dollars at constant prices (Lam and Shiu, 2010). Moreover, economic growth is a catalyst to social-economic development, as rising per capita incomes that trailed increased GDP reduces poverty, that is, a 10% increase in economic growth will lead to a 20-30% decrease in poverty (Adam, 2004). The above statement is reinforced by Goal 8 of SDGs on Decent Work and Economic Growth, which presupposes that sustainable economic growth requires the creation of enabling conditions that allow people to have quality jobs (United Nations, 2018). Let us examine the phenomena of decent work and economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa on the basis of macro-economic data sourced from the World Bank database.

To determine the situations of decent work and economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa, the study descriptively analyzed the World Bank data on per capita GDP, percentage of unemployed males and females in the labour force and percentage of males and females in vulnerable employment for a period of 10 years (2000 -2019)

? The decision rule on Economic growth: If % the per capita GDP of Sub-Saharan Africa ? $3996 (Lower Limit of Upper-Middle Income PCI), Then, the continent is not experiencing economic growth.

? The decision rule on Decent Work: (a) If % of unemployed male and female in the labour force is consistently high overtime, then the continent is far from decent work, and (b) If % of male and female in vulnerable employment in the labour force is consistently high over time, then the continent is far from decent work. Besides, the comparative analyses of per capita GDPs, percentage of unemployed (male and female) and percentages of male and female in vulnerable employment in the labour force of Sub-Sharan Africa and the United States will further, enrich the findings from the descriptive analysis.

The findings of the study indicate that Sub-Saharan Africa suffers setbacks in both economic growth and decent work. From Tables 3 and 4 above, each per capita GDP of Sub-Saharan Africa from 2000-2019 is very low when compared with the minimum per capita GDP of $3996 for the Upper-Middle Income countries. The low per capita GDP for the 10-year period is a strong indication that the continent is not experiencing economic growth. For three different years, the per capita GDPs of Sub-Saharan Africa were $1578 (2010), $1690 (2014) and $1659 (2018) less than $3996.

Comparatively, the United States for the three periods had $48,466 (2010), $51015 (2014), and $ 54579 (2018) higher than $3996.

With regard to decent work, Tables 3 and 4 showed worrisome trends. For 2010, the number of unemployed males in the labour force was 10.51%, while the number of unemployed females was 6.4%. In 2014, the number of unemployed male and female was 5.29% and 6.27 respectively (an indication of a slight drop). By 2019, the number of unemployed male and female were 5.78% and 6.65 respectively (a further indication that the unemployment rates have worsened) with respect to male and female in the continent. Similarly, the numbers of males and females in vulnerable employment on the continent are very alarming. In 2010, the percentage of males in vulnerable employment was while the percentage of females in vulnerable employment was 83.4%. For 2014, the percentage of males in vulnerable employment was 67.8%, while that of females in vulnerable employment was 81.7% (a drop relative to 2010). By 2019, the percentage of males in vulnerable employment was 67.07%, while that of females in vulnerable employment was 81.09% (a slight drop relative to 2014).

Overall, Sub-Saharan Africa has very high percentages of males and females in vulnerable employment, when compared with the United States. In 2000, the percentage of male in vulnerable employment in the US was 4.75% of the labour force, while the female was 3.5%. For 2014, the percentage of males in vulnerable employment in the US was 4.2% of the labour force, while the percentage of females was 3.4%. By 2019, the percentage of males in vulnerable employment in the US was 4.06% of the labour force, while the percentage of females was 3.36%. Overall, the US has very low percentages of male and female in vulnerable employment, when compared with the Sub-Sharan Africa as a whole. The multiplier effect of decent work is expected to trigger economic growth, and systematically lead to the attainment of SDG 8.

The above findings on decent work are supported by findings from the literature reviewed. Evidence from low-income economies such as Bangladesh, Benin, Cambodia, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Nepal, United Republic of Tanzania, Togo, and Uganda revealed that the employment opportunities offered to the young people (aged 15-29) fall short of decent work and that the young people take up these jobs in order to make a living in the absence of an adequate social safety net in their countries (Sparreboom and Staneva, 2014). Beyond this global findings, let us examine the state of decent work on a county-by-country basis in some Sub-Saharan African countries.

In South Africa's tourism industry, it was reported that the work conditions of South African tourist guides are precarious and far from being decent. Also, the tourist guides have limited career experience in tour guiding, as they take up the vulnerable temporary shortterm employment for the purpose of sustaining personal lifestyle rather than economic motivations. Besides, the treatments given to these tourist guides by their employers do not comply with the existing labour regulations (De Beer, Rogerson & Rogerson, 2014).

For over a decade, Jauch & Traub-Merz 2006) reported that workers and trade unions in the clothing and textile industry in Africa contend with abusive labour practices such as low wages, lack of benefits, and poor working conditions and environmental standards, which violates the basic workers' rights as specified by ILO. Worse still, the textile industry undermined the rights of workers and their trade unions to negotiations and collective bargaining through the threat of relocation. The hopelessness caused by unemployment in the continent has also forced the reserve army of unemployed people to be recruited for jobs with poor working conditions.

This paper set out to discuss the imperative of transition to decent work and economic growth (SDG 8) in Sub-Saharan Africa. Leveraging a mixed research method, the paper provided answers to two questions, namely: (a) What is the state of decent work in Sub-Saharan Africa? (b) What is the state of economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa? The first finding indicated that the per capita GDPs of Sub-Saharan Africa from 2000-2019 (a period of 10 years) is very low when compared with the minimum per capita GDP of $3996 for the Upper-Middle Income countries. The second finding indicated that Sub-Saharan Africa showed worrisome trends on decent work because of a combination of worsening unemployment rates and higher vulnerable employment in the labour force.

The study has a number of practical and managerial implications. Firstly, the study support and validate the United Nations' targets on economic growth and decent work, which explicates that to sustain per capita economic growth, the least developed countries must have at least 7 percent gross domestic product growth per annum including providing decent work for all women and men, young people and persons with disabilities, while ensuring equal pay for work of equal value (United Nations, 2018).

Secondly, the study underscores the importance of an ethical climate at international, national and organizational levels for the adoption, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of the level of compliance with the ILO's decent work indicators.

In conclusion, the study revealed that Sub-Saharan Africa is far from the SDGs targets on economic growth and decent work. To achieve these targets, the countries in Sub-Saharan Africa needs to develop realistic strategies that could help create decent work and stimulate economic growth before the year 2030. The multiplier effect of decent work is expected to trigger economic growth, and lead to the attainment of SDG 8.

Flowing from the practical and managerial implications above, the following recommendations are proposed: i. It is recommended that Sub-Saharan African should swiftly embrace economic diversification as a catalyst for boosting their GDPs and by extension the per capital GDPS. This the recommendation needs to be strengthened with clearly defined long-term economic diversification strategies that will help the continent diversify faster the economic resources of the 54 countries in the Sub-Sharan Africa. ii. To boost decent work and economic growth, it recommended that the continent reduce the unemployment rate, bridge gender disparity, promote enhance self-employment, improve access to enterprise skills and employability mentoring, and compliance by the public and private sectors to the decent work indicators developed by the ILO.