1. INTRODUCTION
he contributions of the Nigerian Diaspora are germane to her development and its sustenance. Scholars (Eliot, 1971, Frank 1967,Gore 2000, Gowen and Shetan 1998, Hopkin,1969,) lay emphasis on development as consequent upon actions of government and civil societies. This is to infer that the Diaspora (an arm of the international civil society) can impact institutional and infrastructural reforms to achieve physical indices of development. Development is a desideratum. The physical indices of development it is conjectured is shaped by the social presence in which it exists (i.e. presence of physical indices). Development theorists consider development as consequent upon actions of government and civil societies, as arena in which institutional and infrastructural reforms are implemented to improve the society.
Empirical research (AFFORD, 2000, World Bank, 1997, UNDP, 1997) has provided credence to support the fact that, skewed development and underdevelopment is pervasive among African states. In the Nigerian peculiar case, underdevelopment is manifested in the negative socio-political and economic indices prevalent in the country. Such indices include but are not limited to, little or lack of infrastructure, endemic poverty, (especially at the interior) corruption, political mismanagement and little evidence of commitment to good governance.
From the 1980s, institutional research (AFFORD 2000, UNDP1997, 1998) has noted African international migrations as important reference for development in African countries and Nigeria. Research has also provided ample evidence that from the 1980s, the global economic recessions coupled with military interventions and dominance of politics created a hostile sociopolitical cum economic atmosphere that intensified migrations (Adepoju, 2010, Akanmu, 2010). The harsh socio-economic policies of the 1980s and 1990 (War Against Indiscipline, WAI, Structural Adjustment Programme-SAP and others) further intensified unemployment, hardship and poverty amid stunted economic growth.
This has created a need by government to pay attention to the exploitation of the Diaspora for her development to support domestic efforts (Shuaibu, 2013. Outsourcing for development is more intensified in the age of technology when information and advanced technology is transnationalised in usage and relevance.
A measure of Diaspora for development in terms of quantitative and qualitative input has shown that it is an important constituency outside of the developing world to consider for elimination of poverty and to contribute to the development of the south (AFFORD, 2010:12). Adepoju has suggested that African countries need to incorporate the contributions of their diasporas and remittances in National development planning and programme (2010:161).The World Bank (2000) also notes, cross-border migrations, combined with the "brain drain" from developing countries will be one of the major forces shaping the landscape of the 21 st century. This is because it noted (World Bank 2000:18) the international Diasporas have tremendous business potential. The aim of this study is to increase the understanding of the importance of the Diaspora as agents of development intervention, so that from an informal position policy options could be broadened to explore and exploit the advantages of the Diaspora for development and its sustenance. To achieve this objective, removing hindrances to effective participation is germane. The Diaspora can impact institutional and infrastructural reforms to achieve development. The paper is subsequently divided into Diaspora and sustainable development in literature, Nigeria and outsourcing for sustainable development, Diaspora performance in development intervention, challenges to Diaspora intervention, overcoming the challenges and concluding remarks.
2. II.
3. Diaspora and Sustainable Development in Literature
A Diaspora is the movement, migration or settling of people away from an established ancestral homeland or people settled far from their ancestral homeland (Wikipedia, ). The Nigerian Diaspora exist in relation to the experience and civilizations since the era of the slave trade. It refers to Nigerians migrating to countries outside Nigeria for a range of purposes, from education, and temporary residence to permanent residence (Shuaibu 18 th May 2013), Nworah (2010) noted that over fifteen million Nigerians live outside the country as immigrants in the United States of America, Britain, Germany, France, Canada and other nations.
Development is a multidimensional concept. Elliot (1971) contends that development as a word was coined by rich and powerful advanced nations. The United Nations publication on science and technology for development describes development as the process of allowing and encouraging people to meet their own aspirations. A process that improves on the quality of standard of living measured with realization of higher levels of civilization (Ako cited in Adu, 2008). At the level of the individual, it implies increased skill and capacity, greater freedom, creativity, self-discipline, responsibility and material well-being. A society develops when its members increase jointly their capacity for dealing with the environment. Development connotes fundamental changes in social structure, attitude as well as the acceleration of economic growth, reduction of inequality and eradication of absolute poverty (ibid). To the liberalists, development is synonymous with economic growth which is measured with the yearly increase in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and with structures such as good roads, electricity, infrastructure, availability of social services (and affordability). Affordability however, is the focus of Marxists i.e. what has been happening to poverty, unemployment and inequality. A decline in these within a measured period in a country is a period of development.
Development is the process of self-reliant growth achieved through the participation of the people acting in their own interest as they see them and under their control.
It implies growing self-reliance and fundamental transformation of the society in its totality, economy, polity and culture, etc. Issues of poverty, unemployment and inequality are germane to development. This disaffirms the assertion that mere increase in GDP without corresponding reduction in poverty, unemployment index and application of the rule of law is not development (ibid). Holistic development therefore is the ability of respective communities to control the productive force of their environment for the purpose of solving the problems imposed on them by nature and by man. It is a wide participating process of direct social change in society and material advancement including greater freedom, equality and other valued qualities for the majority of the people through gaining control over their environment (Ako cited in Adu, 2008).
Sustainable development can be defined as development that lasts, that does not endanger the environment and the resources therein for both present and future generations (The Bruntland Commission, 1987, World Development Report, 1972). Segynola (2009) further explains that development in this context is viewed as increasing the availability and widening the distribution of basic life sustaining goods and services such as food, education, shelter, health and protection, provision of higher incomes, better employment and better educational institutions and facilities and improved accessibility of people to goods and services, i.e. improved life and existence. Todaro (1992), Mabogunje (1981), Baba (1986) emphasized that these definitions connote availability of needed resources, exploitation without destruction of the environment and a resultant poverty reduction while maintaining the well-being of the people i.e. intergenerational responsibility for continuity or sustainable development.
Diaspora contribution to development (of homeland)can then be assessed in terms of contributions to the rise in per capital income and the distribution with better access to education, hospitals, means of communication and transportation, better technique of production and quality of life in general, probably with a high value on spiritual or cultural assets.
4. III.
5. Outsourcing for Sustainable Development
At the international conference on "Africa and the African Diaspora" which took place at Jos between 29 th and 30 th October 1998, a communiqué was drafted which included that (1) African countries should do more to attract Africans in the Diaspora by promoting the ideological and institutional arrangements for improved Year 2016 relations. (2) African governments and African societies at large should create organizations that link Africa with its Diaspora in all spheres of endeavour. Mohamoud asserts (2005:13 thanks to inexpensive transportation and communication, diasporas are exerting an evergreater influence on the politics of their homelands? it enables the individual and groups in the Diaspora communities to build up interesting social, economic and political bridges that link their new places of residence with their original homelands.
The globaltrend and direction to exploit the advantages of Diasporas has necessitated state action in harnessing Diaspora advantages. Mberu (2013) emphasized that since the return of democracy in 1999, the Nigerian government has officially recognized Nigerians abroad as important stakeholders and potential partners in the country's development.
The Obasanjo administration was focused on the Diaspora. In September 2000, he (Obasanjo, the then Nigerian President) convened a meeting in Atlanta, USA, of Nigerians in the Americas and later a meeting in London for those in Europe to enable them to create a mechanism through which they could effectively be mobilized and involved in Nigeria's development process (cited in Mberu, 2013). This resulted into a presidential consultative meeting in Abuja and later the formation of the Nigerians in the Diaspora organization (NIDO) in 2001(ibid).
The Nigerian government sponsored the setting up of NIDO to mobilize, coordinate and act as liaison to tap the abundant resources of the Diaspora. The organization whose leadership came from the Diaspora is recognized by both government and Diaspora as a reliable source of censoring professional Diasporas to assist in Nigeria's development (ibid).
Also, the Nigerian National Volunteer Service was established, a quasi-government organization to coordinate the governments engagement with its Diaspora. In 2005, the President declared July 25 th The Federal government initiative started in 2000 to engage in successful ventures earlier taken up by India, China, Malaysia, Ireland and others. The Annual Diaspora Day has provided a forum for investment, infrastructural development and job creation.
Between 25 th and 27 th July 2011, the government had created the new Ministry of Trade and Investment to harness investment opportunities and create enabling environment for investors to come into the country. This was referred to as the Diaspora Engagement Policy (Mberu, 2013). This is to woo the Diaspora for investment, infrastructural development and job creation. President Goodluck Jonathan's visit to the United States of America in27/9/ 2014(9 o' clock NTA News, Business segment)was to encourage the Nigerian Diaspora to further participate in the development of the nation.
IV.
6. Diaspora Performance in Development Intervention Remittance
Remittance records the most notable means of Diaspora participation in Nigeria's development (Soludo,2013, Dabiri, 2013). The World Bank(2010) recorded that remittance is used for services like health, housing, business start-ups and education. From the national perspective, financial remittances have been shown to substantially affect a nation's balance of payment (BOP) and foreign exchange revenues (FEXR). World Bank report shows that Nigerians in the Diaspora remitted the sum of ten billion US dollars to Nigeria in 2008, a 47 percent of the year's GDP (Gross Domestic Product) (cited in Soludo,2013). Chukwuma Soludo (2013) noted that the World Banks figures recorded remittances of about 10 per cent of Nigeria's GDP in 2012 and again about 21 billion dollars in 2015.
Remittances has impacted positively on poverty alleviation, they have paid medical bills, school fees, burials and social activities and established small scale businesses. Remittances also, it is suggestive, help stabilize the foreign exchange demand (NGEX). Social capital in return migration or virtually by using communication technologies in host countries can provide access to more developed markets.
The sale of Diaspora bond is targeting the savings of migrants abroad. Nigeria had been available on the international markets on regular bond issuance since 2011 and 2012 (Diaspora Bonds, 2012) (Shuaibu, 2013). They continue to act as watchdogs of democracy. Diasporas engage indirectly in politics and sponsor political parties and elective offices. They also provide political and financial support. For example, there was Diaspora political support for governor Segun Oni of Ekiti State, and governor Kayode Fayemi (oral interview, Bruce Bolanle, 2015, Adefolaju , 2014)
7. V. Non-Governmental Organisations
The National Volunteer Service (NNVS) and Nigerians in Diaspora Organization, NIDO are nongovernmental organizations formed to coordinate diaspora Nigerians in the important bid to assist development. NIDO's vision and mission is anchored on the philosophy of using human resources of professional Nigerians to enhance the development of Nigerians abroad (Ani, 2006). NIDO was established in the year 2000 with headquarters in London. It is the official platform recognized by government to partner with public and private businesses in Foreign Direct Investment (FDI).
NIDO specializes in Professional Networking, stakeholder's advocacy and skill transfer to Nigeria. NIDO in the face of Nigeria's development challenges promises to expand resources on trade and investment missions across Nigeria as well as hosting trade missions to Europe and other capitals across the world (Nigerians in the Diaspora Organisation Europe, Website).
8. b) Medical Assistance
Diaspora Nigerians often mobilize medical teams to Nigeria, drugs, check-ups and treatment are often given free of charge, sometimes free operations are done as assistance to patients in need (Contributions from Diaspora Nigerians, 2013). Nigerian doctors in the Diaspora and other stakeholders converged in Abuja on September 5, 2012 to brainstorm on how to actualize the transformation agenda of the Jonathan administration in the health care sector and seek collaboration of the private sector to provide best healthcare delivery services in Nigeria (Health Minister Meets Nigerian Diaspora Medical Doctors, 2012). In 2011, the Federal government had signed an MOU, with the association of Nigerian physicians in the Americas (ANPA) and the medical association of the health professionals from the Diaspora. Special areas of impact are on good conduct and behaviour.
9. c) Others
Other professionals such as engineers and accountants contribute variedly to Nigeria's development. There have been individual contributions to locality and state development. Some contribute directly to their alma mater and some give scholarships to indigent students.
Ethnic and professional associations are also visible at local level contributions (Sokan, oral interview, 3/9/2014).
Negative contributions such as assistance to politicians in money laundering, favour for fat contracts, assistance to buy properties abroad, harlotry, trafficking, 419 scam etc., bring negative image to Nigeria but the huge populations of law-abiding Diasporas encourage further the need to partner with them for development
10. VI. Challenges to Diaspora Intervention
Ventures Africa listed obstacles that discourage Diaspora Nigerians from returning home such as, bad political climate full of corruption and lack of transparency, lack of informal structure, no stable power supply, no arable and well-distributed water system, no good road network, lack of touch with the system, no good source of information and representation, such as in India and China. The Nigerian government's representation of the Diaspora is considered redundant and the Diaspora groups are lousy with power struggle and the comfort of the Diaspora compared to Nigeria (Ventures Africa).
Further, challenges to investment in homeland by Diasporas include lack of trust, bad governmental policy, insecurity, little or no infrastructural development, and lack of good representation, insecurity, corruption, piracy, violence, militias, bad governance and terrorism. All these have led some to conclude that Nigeria is a failing state.
In addition, my interview respondents, Engineer Ademola Adepoju (13/4/14), Grace Owoeye (6/8/13), Femi Adefolaju (13/4/14), complained about the attitude of friends and relatives who believe Diasporas are money bags to be exploited. Many noted how funds transferred home are embezzled or mismanaged by family members or friends and sometimes contractors. recorded that the impact of remittances is mostly felt at a micro-economic level and can only be felt at macro levels when used for investment.
To Okene Adams (2010) factors of inhibition to the success of Diaspora development interventions include, poverty, lack of capital, god fatherism, political hurdles of development, and the Nigerian socio-cultural milieu (i.e. unwilling attitude of homeland Nigerians due to envy, exploitation and greed) which he suggested the country can overcome through dedication and determination in collaboration.
On the side of the Diasporas, corrupt Diasporas assist Nigerian politicians and government officials launder stolen money leading to desiccation of Nigeria's image and duplicity. Adams (2010) noted that, most diasporas (also corroborated by oral interview, Eng. Adepoju (13/4/14), Femi Adefolaju (13/4/14), Olowomehin (3/3/13), Gladys Umeh (2/5/13) note official corruption as the most notable economic disaster of the nation. Adams (2010) insist hat a correction of the social policy is a fundamental task that goes to the root of the prevailing unjust economic order.
Segun Sango, General Secretary, Democratic Socialist Movement emphasized that it is an assignment that goes beyond the scope of periodic but highly expensive prosecution of a few individual which is the stock in trade of capitalist governments in the world over, reiterating the idea that corruption and bad governance are the duo bane of Nigeria's socio-economic and political progress(cited in Adams, 2010).
Segun Sango further noted that recommended solutions to the powers that be on how to combat these epileptic barriers attract no concern or are at most minimized; this is because the government and its cronies are the same people that perpetrate and facilitate the atrocity that retards the growth of the nation (Segun Sango General Secretary DSM)(ibid).
The Jimi Coker's (a returnee medical professional) experience illustrates the little expertise and frustration in Diaspora development intervention (cited n Adams 2010). Such include challenges of personal and institutional cost, little professional ethics of Nigerian health care providers and Nigerian attitude to their health in addition to poverty and ignorance. Challenges notwithstanding, the Diaspora present a good avenue to assist the socio-political and economic development of the nation. purposes (contributions from Diaspora Nigerians, 2013, Supporting Primary Education in Nigeria, undated). The evidence about the contributions of other migrants to development of their countries, (see studies by: Guita 2009, Nauja 2009, Cohen 1997Cuko and Traore, undated) reinforce the basis for seeking ways to engage the Nigerian Diaspora in the development of the country. In recent times, the Chinese, Indian, Korea, and other communities of Diaspora nationals have been heralded as champions in knowledge and skills transfer, Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) flows from their adopted economies to their home origin, contributing in part to the rapid pace of industrialization that these countries have witnessed (ADP fund special paper, undated). To explore these advantages, Nigeria should do everything to attract the Diaspora by providing the ideological and institutional arrangement for improved relations, a reverberated point that Nigeria should establish a special institute for research on Nigerians and Diaspora cooperation (ADP Special Paper. Corroborated by oral interview -Tunde Adeniran Orin-Ekiti 7/8/14.
11. Volume XVI Issue III Version I
Bankole (2010) noted that from the Diasporas indigenous skills can be harnessed for national development. The media department of the office of the secretary to the government of the federation in 2007 noted the increasing desire by the Nigerians in the Diaspora to be involved in the development process.
The Diaspora need to have a paradigm shift in direction of focus from charity to collective and massive business and economic investment through brain circulation and grass root community organizing(ibid),a two way flow of skills, capital and technology, benefiting both the sending and receiving countries (ibid). The Yar'Adua administration set aside 8 billion naira to attract and encourage the Diaspora Nigerians to be part of an on-going economic development. President Jonathan also elevated the Diaspora office, an arm of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to a full-fledged Diaspora commission and appointed a senior special adviser, Bianca Ojukwu and currently honourable Abike Dabiri Erewa to see to it, to provide for the engagement of Nigerians in the Diaspora in the project of participation and utilization of human capital and material resources towards the overall socio-economic, cultural and political development of Nigeria.
It is further emphasized that the dynamism of future contributions to national transformation will come from the children and grandchildren of the present day Diaspora.
To overcome available challenges therefore, institutions established by government to improve Diaspora cooperation should be democratized to reach the grassroots. Ambassador Tunde Adeniran (Oral interview 7/8/2014) insisted, "The impact of such cannot be felt unless there is governmental democratization of such effort. Institutionalization of such bodies into state and local levels will further bring the visible impact of Diaspora interventions in development." It is noted that the existing mode and methods of contacts and engagement between the Diaspora and the homeland remain largely informal, adhoc and are mostly at family, community and hometown levels (ADP, Special Paper,). It is relevant to have certain facilities on ground and the enabling environment to assist Diaspora initiatives such are -Safe and secure environment, Provision of sustainable and reliable infrastructure -such are water, good roads, electricity, telecommunications and good road network. A good housing programme with reliable mortgage system (This to a level has encouraged some Diaspora return but more work is needed(ibid). Solanke (2011) noted that African artists and entertainers can further export a cultural rebrand of the African image. The entertainment industry is an insidious avenue to propagate positive information about Nigeria.
Policy continuity is germane to maintaining trust of Diaspora citizens. Inconsistency in government attitude to Diaspora has become a bane to participation. New regimes are akin to forget or abandon the good policies introduced earlier e.g. the 2007 "Citizens diplomacy" to address the prevalent incidents of alleged abuse and persecution of Nigerians in different parts of the world (Bankole, 2010).
Bankole asserts that available information show that there are many Nigerians with proven integrity who contribute to its (Nigeria) development and promote its reputation. This is a testifier to the fact that pockets of negative incidences such as the 419 scam (fraudsters), drug dealing and other vices should not be allowed to feed the existing mutual suspicion between diplomats and Diaspora residents(ibid). Stereotypical perceptions of how some citizens are involved in various illegitimate pursuits should be removed.
There should be effective anti-graft legislation on corruption (The President Buhari Administration's Anti graft Initiative should be further promoted and legislated). It is also important to enthrone good governance, probity and transparency. Anti-corruption will create the environment for trust needed by Diasporas to invest.
It is necessary to have an attitudinal redirection, research and opinion polls conclude that governmental attitude (of both host and home countries) are focused on exploitation of professionals, a population of which is probably less than 50 percent. It is relevant to find access to the remainder of the population as their contributions might provide the necessary leverage for positive achievements.
Visiting Diasporas must be tolerant of the system and try to be optimistic about correcting the system. Diasporas must not expect special treatment in contract negotiations and political appointments. This could create discontent, hatred and hostility. Counter wise resident Nigerians should not be hostile or opportunistic with returnee Diasporas. They should not exploit them or create disadvantages to show they are VII.
12. Overcoming the Challenges
Volume XVI Issue III Version I no more Nigerians or that they left when things were bad or wish to return now that things are better (ibid).
Institutionalization of trade and investment at state and federal levels, purchase of landed properties, and transfer of scientific and technical and intellectual knowledge are important areas to address (the Diaspora Bond should be focused on infrastructural development). Money transfer limitations should be better addressed with reduced taxation and there should be better access to e-banking at local and village levels. Corrupt Diasporas should be apprehended to stop the image desiccation.
There should be enthronement of good governance, probity and transparency at all levels of Governance Existing processes and strategies should be sustained and improved upon.
VIII.
13. CONCLUSION
The Nigerian Diaspora provides a good source of development intervention to assist the country. To encourage and sustain Diaspora intervention in development, the Nigerian government and citizenry must provide a positive enabling environment by removing the hindrances and stumbling blocks to participation. This will be effective with sustained good policies that will ensure probity and transparency to curry the trust of the Diaspora Nigerians. A democratisation of the polity is an essential, grass root institutionalisation of Diaspora into governance is also important. The sustenance of Nigeria's future development is hinged on this as an important point to assist other development models. It is apt to agree with Hagher (2009) that, the Nigerian Diaspora is truly an immense engine of growth for our country, a huge reserve and resource to be carefully nourished, harnessed and channelled towards our fast track national development strategy.
Volume XVI Issue III Version I
| 20 | 19 21 |
| Volume XVI Issue III Version I | Volume XVI Issue III Version I |
| ( H ) | ( H ) ( H ) |
| Global Journal of Human Social Science | Global Journal of Human Social Science - |